Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald (September 24, 1896 – December 21, 1940) was an American novelist, essayist, and short story writer. He is best known for his novels depicting the flamboyance and excess of the Jazz Age—a term he popularized in his short story collection Tales of the Jazz Age. During his lifetime, he published four novels, four story collections, and 164 short stories. Although he achieved temporary popular success and fortune in the 1920s, Fitzgerald received critical acclaim only after his death and is now widely regarded as one of the greatest American writers of the 20th century.

Born into a middle-class family in Saint Paul, Minnesota, Fitzgerald was raised primarily in New York state. He attended Princeton University where he befriended future literary critic Edmund Wilson. Owing to a failed romantic relationship with Chicago socialite Ginevra King, he dropped out in 1917 to join the United States Army during World War I. While stationed in Alabama, he met Zelda Sayre, a Southern debutante who belonged to Montgomery’s exclusive country-club set. Although she initially rejected Fitzgerald’s marriage proposal due to his lack of financial prospects, Zelda agreed to marry him after he published the commercially successful This Side of Paradise (1920). The novel became a cultural sensation and cemented his reputation as one of the eminent writers of the decade.

His second novel, The Beautiful and Damned (1922), propelled him further into the cultural elite. To maintain his affluent lifestyle, he wrote numerous stories for popular magazines such as The Saturday Evening Post, Collier’s Weekly, and Esquire. During this period, Fitzgerald frequented Europe, where he befriended modernist writers and artists of the «Lost Generation» expatriate community, including Ernest Hemingway. His third novel, The Great Gatsby (1925), received generally favorable reviews but was a commercial failure, selling fewer than 23,000 copies in its first year. Despite its lackluster debut, The Great Gatsby is now hailed by some literary critics as the «Great American Novel». Following the deterioration of his wife’s mental health and her placement in a mental institute for schizophrenia, Fitzgerald completed his final novel, Tender Is the Night (1934).

Struggling financially because of the declining popularity of his works during the Great Depression, Fitzgerald moved to Hollywood, where he embarked upon an unsuccessful career as a screenwriter. While living in Hollywood, he cohabited with columnist Sheilah Graham, his final companion before his death. After a long struggle with alcoholism, he attained sobriety only to die of a heart attack in 1940, at 44. His friend Edmund Wilson edited and published an unfinished fifth novel, The Last Tycoon (1941), after Fitzgerald’s death. In 1993, a new edition was published as The Love of the Last Tycoon, edited by Matthew J. Bruccoli

Childhood and early years

Born on September 24, 1896, in Saint Paul, Minnesota, to a middle-class Catholic family, Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald was named after Francis Scott Key, a distant cousin who wrote the lyrics in 1814 for the song «The Star-Spangled Banner», which later became the American national anthem. His mother was Mary «Molly» McQuillan Fitzgerald, the daughter of an Irish immigrant who became wealthy as a wholesale grocer His father, Edward Fitzgerald, descended from Irish and English ancestry, and had moved to Minnesota from Maryland after the American Civil War to open a wicker-furniture manufacturing business. Edward’s first cousin twice removed, Mary Surratt, was hanged in 1865 for conspiring to assassinate Abraham Lincoln.

One year after Fitzgerald’s birth, his father’s wicker-furniture manufacturing business failed, and the family moved to Buffalo, New York, where his father joined Procter & Gamble as a salesman. Fitzgerald spent the first decade of his childhood primarily in Buffalo with a brief interlude in Syracuse between January 1901 and September 1903. His parents sent him to two Catholic schools on Buffalo’s West Side—first Holy Angels Convent (1903–1904) and then Nardin Academy (1905–1908). As a boy, Fitzgerald was described by his peers as unusually intelligent with a keen interest in literature.

Procter & Gamble fired his father in March 1908, and the family returned to Saint Paul. Although his alcoholic father was now destitute, his mother’s inheritance supplemented the family income and allowed them to continue living a middle-class lifestyle. Fitzgerald attended St. Paul Academy from 1908 to 1911. At 13, Fitzgerald had his first piece of fiction published in the school newspaper. In 1911, Fitzgerald’s parents sent him to the Newman School, a Catholic prep school in Hackensack, New Jersey. At Newman, Father Sigourney Fay recognized his literary potential and encouraged him to become a writer.

Princeton and Ginevra King

After graduating from Newman in 1913, Fitzgerald enrolled at Princeton University and became one of the few Catholics in the student body. While at Princeton, Fitzgerald shared a room and became long time friends with John Biggs Jr, who later helped the author find a home in Delaware. As the semesters passed, he formed close friendships with classmates Edmund Wilson and John Peale Bishop, both of whom would later aid his literary career. Determined to be a successful writer, Fitzgerald wrote stories and poems for the Princeton Triangle Club, the Princeton Tiger, and the Nassau Lit.

During his sophomore year, the 18-year-old Fitzgerald returned home to Saint Paul during Christmas break where he met and fell in love with 16-year-old Chicago debutante Ginevra King. The couple began a romantic relationship spanning several years. She would become his literary model for the characters of Isabelle Borgé in This Side of Paradise, Daisy Buchanan in The Great Gatsby, and many others. While Fitzgerald attended Princeton, Ginevra attended Westover, a Connecticut women’s school. He visited Ginevra at Westover until her expulsion for flirting with a crowd of young male admirers from her dormitory window. Her return home ended Fitzgerald’s weekly courtship.

Despite the great distance separating them, Fitzgerald still attempted to pursue Ginevra, and he traveled across the country to visit her family’s Lake Forest estate. Although Ginevra loved him, her upper-class family belittled Scott’s courtship because of his lower-class status compared to her other wealthy suitors. Her imperious father Charles Garfield King purportedly told a young Fitzgerald that «poor boys shouldn’t think of marrying rich girls.»

Rejected by Ginevra as an unsuitable match, a suicidal Fitzgerald enlisted in the United States Army amid World War I and received a commission as a second lieutenant. While awaiting deployment to the Western front where he hoped to die in combat, he was stationed in a training camp at Fort Leavenworth under the command of Captain Dwight Eisenhower, the future general of the Army and United States President. Fitzgerald purportedly chafed under Eisenhower’s authority and disliked him intensely. Hoping to have a novel published before his anticipated death in Europe, Fitzgerald hastily wrote a 120,000-word manuscript entitled The Romantic Egotist in three months. When he submitted the manuscript to publishers, Scribner’s rejected it, although the impressed reviewer, Max Perkins, praised Fitzgerald’s writing and encouraged him to resubmit it after further revisions.

Army service and Zelda Sayre

In June 1918, Fitzgerald was garrisoned with the 45th and 67th Infantry Regiments at Camp Sheridan near Montgomery, Alabama. Attempting to rebound from his rejection by Ginevra, a lonely Fitzgerald began dating a variety of young Montgomery women. At a country club, Fitzgerald met Zelda Sayre, a 17-year-old Southern belle and the affluent granddaughter of a Confederate senator whose extended family owned the first White House of the Confederacy. Zelda was one of the most celebrated debutantes of Montgomery’s exclusive country club set. A romance soon blossomed, although he continued writing Ginevra, asking in vain if there was any chance of resuming their former relationship. Three days after Ginevra married a wealthy Chicago businessman, Fitzgerald professed his affections for Zelda in September 1918.

Fitzgerald’s Montgomery sojourn was interrupted briefly in November 1918 when he was transferred northward to Camp Mills, Long Island. While he was stationed there, the Allied Powers signed an armistice with Germany, and the war ended. Dispatched back to the base near Montgomery to await discharge, he renewed his pursuit of Zelda. Together, Scott and Zelda engaged in what he later described as sexual recklessness, and by December 1918, they had consummated their relationship. Although Fitzgerald did not initially intend to marry Zelda, the couple gradually viewed themselves as informally engaged, although Zelda declined to marry him until he proved financially successful.

Upon his discharge on February 14, 1919, he moved to New York City, where he unsuccessfully begged the editors of various newspapers for a job. He then turned to writing advertising copy to sustain himself while seeking a breakthrough as an author of fiction. Fitzgerald wrote to Zelda frequently, and by March 1919, he had sent Zelda his mother’s ring, and the two became officially engaged. Several of Fitzgerald’s friends opposed the match, as they deemed Zelda ill-suited for him. Likewise, Zelda’s Episcopalian family was wary of Scott because of his Catholic background, precarious finances, and excessive drinking.

Seeking his fortune in New York, Fitzgerald worked for the Barron Collier advertising agency and lived in a single room in Manhattan’s West Side. Although he received a small raise for creating a catchy slogan, «We keep you clean in Muscatine», for an Iowa laundry, Fitzgerald subsisted in relative poverty. Still aspiring to a lucrative career in literature, he wrote several short stories and satires in his spare time. Rejected over 120 times, he sold only one story, «Babes in the Woods», and received a pittance of $30.

Struggles and literary breakthrough

With dreams of a lucrative career in New York City dashed, Fitzgerald could not convince Zelda that he would be able to support her, and she broke off the engagement in June 1919. In the wake of Fitzgerald’s rejection by Ginevra two years prior, his subsequent rejection by Zelda dispirited him. While Prohibition-era New York City was experiencing the burgeoning Jazz Age, Fitzgerald felt defeated and rudderless: two women had rejected him in succession; he detested his advertising job; his stories failed to sell; he could not afford new clothes, and his future seemed bleak. Unable to earn a successful living, Fitzgerald publicly threatened to jump to his death from a window ledge of the Yale Club, and he carried a revolver daily while contemplating suicide.

In July, Fitzgerald quit his advertising job and returned to St. Paul. Having returned to his hometown as a failure, Fitzgerald became a social recluse and lived on the top floor of his parents’ home at 599 Summit Avenue, on Cathedral Hill. He decided to make one last attempt to become a novelist and to stake everything on the success or failure of a book. Abstaining from alcohol and parties, he worked day and night to revise The Romantic Egotist as This Side of Paradise—an autobiographical account of his Princeton years and his romances with Ginevra, Zelda, and others.

While revising his novel, Fitzgerald took a job repairing car roofs at the Northern Pacific Shops in St. Paul. One evening in the fall of 1919, after an exhausted Fitzgerald had returned home from work, the postman rang and delivered a telegram from Scribner’s announcing that his revised manuscript had been accepted for publication. Upon reading the telegram, an ecstatic Fitzgerald ran down the streets of St. Paul and flagged down random automobiles to share the news.

Fitzgerald’s debut novel appeared in bookstores on March 26, 1920, and became an instant success. This Side of Paradise sold approximately 40,000 copies in the first year. Within months of its publication, his debut novel became a cultural sensation in the United States, and F. Scott Fitzgerald became a household name. Critics such as H. L. Mencken hailed the work as the best American novel of the year, and newspaper columnists described the work as the first realistic American college novel. The work catapulted Fitzgerald’s career as a writer. Magazines now accepted his previously rejected stories, and The Saturday Evening Post published his story «Bernice Bobs Her Hair» with his name on its May 1920 cover.

Fitzgerald’s new fame enabled him to earn much higher rates for his short stories, and Zelda resumed their engagement as Fitzgerald could now pay for her accustomed lifestyle. Although they were re-engaged, Fitzgerald’s feelings for Zelda were at an all-time low, and he remarked to a friend, «I wouldn’t care if she died, but I couldn’t stand to have anybody else marry her.» Despite mutual reservations, they married in a simple ceremony on April 3, 1920, at St. Patrick’s Cathedral, New York. At the time of their wedding, Fitzgerald claimed neither of them still loved the other, and the early years of their marriage were more akin to a friendship.

New York City and the Jazz Age

Living in luxury at the Biltmore Hotel in New York City, the newlywed couple became national celebrities, as much for their wild behavior as for the success of Fitzgerald’s novel. At the Biltmore, Scott did handstands in the lobby, while Zelda slid down the hotel banisters. After several weeks, the hotel asked them to leave for disturbing other guests. The couple relocated two blocks to the Commodore Hotel on 42nd Street where they spent half an hour spinning in the revolving door. Fitzgerald likened their juvenile behavior in New York City to two «small children in a great bright unexplored barn.» Writer Dorothy Parker first encountered the couple riding on the roof of a taxi. «They did both look as though they had just stepped out of the sun», Parker recalled, «their youth was striking. Everyone wanted to meet him.»

As Fitzgerald was one of the most celebrated novelists during the Jazz Age, many admirers sought his acquaintanceship. He met sports columnist Ring Lardner, journalist Rebecca West, cartoonist Rube Goldberg, actress Laurette Taylor, actor Lew Fields, comedian Ed Wynn, and many others. He became close friends with critics George Jean Nathan and H. L. Mencken, the influential co-editors of The Smart Set magazine who led an ongoing cultural war against puritanism in American arts. At the peak of his commercial success and cultural salience, Fitzgerald recalled traveling in a taxi one afternoon in New York City and weeping when he realized that he would never be as happy again.

Fitzgerald’s ephemeral happiness mirrored the societal giddiness of the Jazz Age, a term which he popularized in his essays and stories. He described the era as racing «along under its own power, served by great filling stations full of money.» In Fitzgerald’s eyes, the era represented a morally permissive time when Americans became disillusioned with prevailing social norms and obsessed with self-gratification.

During this hedonistic era, alcohol increasingly fueled the Fitzgeralds’ social life, and the couple consumed gin-and-fruit concoctions at every outing. Publicly, their alcohol intake meant little more than napping at parties, but privately it led to bitter quarrels.

As their quarrels worsened, the couple accused each other of marital infidelities. They remarked to friends that their marriage would not last much longer. After their eviction from the Commodore Hotel in May 1920, the couple spent the summer in a cottage in Westport, Connecticut, near Long Island Sound.

In Winter 1921, his wife became pregnant as Fitzgerald worked on his second novel, The Beautiful and Damned, and the couple traveled to his home in St. Paul, Minnesota, to have the child. On October 26, 1921, Zelda gave birth to their daughter and only child Frances Scott «Scottie» Fitzgerald. As she emerged from the anesthesia, he recorded Zelda saying, «Oh, God, goofo I’m drunk. Mark Twain. Isn’t she smart—she has the hiccups. I hope it’s beautiful and a fool—a beautiful little fool.» Fitzgerald later used some of her rambling almost verbatim for Daisy Buchanan’s dialogue in The Great Gatsby.

Long Island and second novel

After his daughter’s birth, Fitzgerald returned to drafting The Beautiful and Damned. The novel’s plot follows a young artist and his wife who become dissipated and bankrupt while partying in New York City. He modeled the characters of Anthony Patch on himself and Gloria Patch on—in his words—the chill-mindedness and selfishness of Zelda. Metropolitan Magazine serialized the manuscript in late 1921, and Scribner’s published the book in March 1922. Scribner’s prepared an initial print run of 20,000 copies. It sold well enough to warrant additional print runs reaching 50,000 copies. That year, Fitzgerald released an anthology of eleven stories entitled Tales of the Jazz Age. He had written all but two of the stories before 1920.

Following Fitzgerald’s adaptation of his story «The Vegetable» into a play, in October 1922, he and Zelda moved to Great Neck, Long Island, to be near Broadway. Although he hoped The Vegetable would inaugurate a lucrative career as a playwright, the play’s November 1923 premiere was an unmitigated disaster. The bored audience walked out during the second act. Fitzgerald wished to halt the show and disavow the production. During an intermission, Fitzgerald asked lead actor Ernest Truex if he planned to finish the performance. When Truex replied in the affirmative, Fitzgerald fled to the nearest bar. Mired in debt by the play’s failure, Fitzgerald wrote short stories to restore his finances. Fitzgerald viewed his stories as worthless except for «Winter Dreams», which he described as his first attempt at the Gatsby idea. When not writing, Fitzgerald and his wife continued to socialize and drink at Long Island parties.

Despite enjoying the Long Island milieu, Fitzgerald disapproved of the extravagant parties, and the wealthy people he encountered often disappointed him. While admiring the wealth and striving to emulate the lifestyles of the rich, he simultaneously found their privileged behavior morally disquieting, and possessed «the smoldering resentment of a peasant» towards them. While the couple were living on Long Island, one of Fitzgerald’s wealthier neighbors was Max Gerlach. Purportedly born in America to a German immigrant family, Gerlach had been a major in the American Expeditionary Forces during World War I and became a gentleman bootlegger who lived like a millionaire in New York. Flaunting his new wealth, Gerlach threw lavish parties, never wore the same shirt twice, used the phrase «old sport», and fostered myths about himself, including that he was a relation of the German Kaiser. These details would inspire Fitzgerald in creating his next work, The Great Gatsby.

Europe and The Great Gatsby

In May 1924, Fitzgerald and his family moved abroad to Europe. He continued writing his third novel, which would eventually become his magnum opus The Great Gatsby. Fitzgerald had been planning the novel since 1923, when he told his publisher Maxwell Perkins of his plans to embark upon a work of art that would be beautiful and intricately patterned. He had already written 18,000 words for his novel by mid-1923 but discarded most of his new story as a false start. Initially titled Trimalchio—an allusion to the Latin work Satyricon—the plot followed the rise of a parvenu who seeks wealth to win the woman he loves. For source material, Fitzgerald drew heavily on his experiences on Long Island and once again on his lifelong obsession with his first love Ginevra King. «The whole idea of Gatsby», he later explained, «is the unfairness of a poor young man not being able to marry a girl with money. This theme comes up again and again because I lived it.»

Work on The Great Gatsby slowed while the Fitzgeralds sojourned on the French Riviera, where a marital crisis developed. Zelda became infatuated with a French naval aviator, Edouard Jozan. She spent afternoons swimming at the beach and evenings dancing at the casinos with him. After six weeks, Zelda asked for a divorce. Fitzgerald sought to confront Jozan and locked Zelda in their house until he could do so. Before any confrontation could occur, Jozan—who had no intention of marrying Zelda—left the Riviera, and the Fitzgeralds never saw him again. Soon after, Zelda overdosed on sleeping pills. The couple never spoke of the incident, but the episode led to a permanent breach in their marriage. Jozan later dismissed the entire incident and claimed no infidelity or romance had occurred: «They both had a need of drama, they made it up and perhaps they were the victims of their own unsettled and a little unhealthy imagination.»

Following this incident, the Fitzgeralds relocated to Rome, where he made revisions to the Gatsby manuscript throughout the winter and submitted the final version in February 1925. Fitzgerald declined a $10,000 offer for the serial rights, as it would delay the book’s publication. Upon its release on April 10, 1925, Willa Cather, T. S. Eliot, and Edith Wharton praised Fitzgerald’s work, and the novel received generally favorable reviews from contemporary literary critics. Despite this reception, Gatsby became a commercial failure compared to his previous efforts, This Side of Paradise (1920) and The Beautiful and Damned (1922). By the end of the year, the book had sold fewer than 23,000 copies. For the rest of his life, The Great Gatsby experienced tepid sales. It would take decades for the novel to gain its present acclaim and popularity, thanks also to the popular dust-jacket art, named Celestial Eyes.

Hemingway and the Lost Generation

After wintering in Italy, the Fitzgeralds returned to France, where they alternated between Paris and the French Riviera until 1926. During this period, he became friends with writer Gertrude Stein, bookseller Sylvia Beach, novelist James Joyce, poet Ezra Pound and other members of the American expatriate community in Paris, some of whom would later be identified with the Lost Generation. Most notable among them was a relatively unknown Ernest Hemingway, whom Fitzgerald first met in May 1925 and grew to admire. Hemingway later recalled that, during this early period of their relationship, Fitzgerald became his most loyal friend.

In contrast to his friendship with Scott, Hemingway disliked Zelda and described her as «insane» in his memoir, A Moveable Feast. Hemingway claimed that Zelda preferred her husband to write lucrative short stories as opposed to novels in order to support her accustomed lifestyle. «I always felt a story in the Saturday Evening Post was tops», Zelda later recalled, «But Scott couldn’t stand to write them.» To supplement their income, Fitzgerald often wrote stories for magazines such as The Saturday Evening Post, Collier’s Weekly, and Esquire. He would first write his stories in an ‘authentic’ manner, then rewrite them to add plot twists which increased their salability as magazine stories. This «whoring», as Hemingway called these sales, emerged as a sore point in their friendship. After reading The Great Gatsby, an impressed Hemingway vowed to put any differences with Fitzgerald aside and to aid him in any way he could, although he feared Zelda would derail Fitzgerald’s writing career.

Hemingway alleged that Zelda sought to destroy her husband, and she purportedly taunted Fitzgerald over his penis’ size. After examining it in a public restroom, Hemingway confirmed Fitzgerald’s penis to be of average size. A more serious rift soon occurred when Zelda belittled Fitzgerald with homophobic slurs and accused him of engaging in a homosexual relationship with Hemingway. Fitzgerald decided to have sex with a prostitute to prove his heterosexuality. Zelda found condoms he had purchased before any encounter occurred, and a bitter quarrel ensued, resulting in lingering jealousy. Soon after, Zelda threw herself down a flight of marble stairs at a party because Fitzgerald, engrossed in talking to Isadora Duncan, ignored her. In December 1926, after two unpleasant years in Europe which considerably strained their marriage, the Fitzgeralds returned to America.

Sojourn in Hollywood and Lois Moran

In 1926, film producer John W. Considine Jr. invited Fitzgerald to Hollywood during its golden age to write a flapper comedy for United Artists. He agreed and moved into a studio-owned bungalow with Zelda in January 1927. In Hollywood, the Fitzgeralds attended parties where they danced the black bottom and mingled with film stars. At one party they outraged guests Ronald Colman and Constance Talmadge by a prank: They requested their watches and, retreating into the kitchen, boiled the expensive timepieces in a pot of tomato sauce. The Hollywood life’s novelty quickly faded for the Fitzgeralds, and Zelda frequently complained of boredom.

While attending a lavish party at the Pickfair estate, Fitzgerald met 17-year-old Lois Moran, a starlet who had gained widespread fame for her role in Stella Dallas (1925). Desperate for intellectual conversation, Moran and Fitzgerald discussed literature and philosophy for hours while sitting on a staircase. Fitzgerald was 31 years old and past his prime, but the smitten Moran regarded him as a sophisticated, handsome, and gifted writer. Consequently, she pursued a relationship with him. The starlet became a muse for the author, and he wrote her into a short story called «Magnetism», in which a young Hollywood film starlet causes a married writer to waver in his sexual devotion to his wife. Fitzgerald later rewrote Rosemary Hoyt—one of the central characters in Tender is the Night—to mirror Moran.

Jealous of Fitzgerald and Moran, an irate Zelda set fire to her own expensive clothing in a bathtub as a self-destructive act. She disparaged the teenage Moran as «a breakfast food that many men identified with whatever they missed from life.» Fitzgerald’s relations with Moran further exacerbated the Fitzgeralds’ marital difficulties and, after merely two months in Jazz Age Hollywood, the unhappy couple departed for Delaware in March 1927.

Zelda’s illness and final novel, Tender is the Night

The Fitzgeralds rented «Ellerslie», a mansion near Wilmington, Delaware, until 1929. Fitzgerald returned to his fourth novel but proved unable to make any progress due to his alcoholism and poor work ethic. In Spring 1929, the couple returned to Europe. That winter, Zelda’s behavior grew increasingly erratic and violent. During an automobile trip to Paris along the mountainous roads of the Grande Corniche, Zelda seized the car’s steering wheel and tried to kill herself along with Fitzgerald and their nine-year-old daughter by driving over a cliff. Following this homicidal incident, doctors diagnosed Zelda with schizophrenia in June 1930. The couple traveled to Switzerland, where she underwent treatment at a clinic. They returned to America in September 1931. In February 1932, she underwent hospitalization at the Phipps Clinic at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland.

In April 1932, when the psychiatric clinic allowed Zelda to travel with her husband, Fitzgerald took her to lunch with critic H. L. Mencken, by then the literary editor of The American Mercury. In his private diary, Mencken noted Zelda «went insane in Paris a year or so ago, and is still plainly more or less off her base.» Throughout the luncheon, she manifested signs of mental distress. A year later, when Mencken met Zelda for the last time, he described her mental illness as immediately evident to any onlooker and her mind as «only half sane.» He regretted Fitzgerald could not write novels, as he had to write magazine stories to pay for Zelda’s psychiatric treatment.

During this time, Fitzgerald rented the «La Paix» estate in the suburb of Towson, Maryland, and worked on his next novel, which drew heavily on recent experiences. The story concerned a promising young American named Dick Diver who marries a mentally ill young woman; their marriage deteriorates while they are abroad in Europe. While Fitzgerald labored on his novel, Zelda wrote—and sent to Scribner’s—her own fictionalized version of these same autobiographical events in Save Me the Waltz (1932). Piqued by what he saw as theft of his novel’s plot material, Fitzgerald would later describe Zelda as a plagiarist and a third-rate writer. Despite his annoyance, he insisted upon few revisions to the work, and he persuaded Perkins to publish Zelda’s novel. Scribner’s published Zelda’s novel in October 1932, but it was a commercial and critical failure.

Fitzgerald’s own novel debuted in April 1934 as Tender Is the Night and received mixed reviews. Its structure threw off many critics who felt Fitzgerald had not lived up to their expectations. Hemingway and others argued that such criticism stemmed from superficial readings of the material and from Depression-era America’s reaction to Fitzgerald’s status as a symbol of Jazz Age excess. The novel did not sell well upon publication, with approximately 12,000 sold in the first three months, but, like The Great Gatsby, the book’s reputation has since grown significantly.

Great Depression and decline

Amid the Great Depression, Fitzgerald’s works were deemed elitist and materialistic. In 1933, journalist Matthew Josephson criticized Fitzgerald’s short stories saying that many Americans could no longer afford to drink champagne whenever they pleased or to go on vacation to Montparnasse in Paris. As writer Budd Schulberg recalled, «my generation thought of F. Scott Fitzgerald as an age rather than a writer, and when the economic stroke of 1929 began to change the sheiks and flappers into unemployed boys or underpaid girls, we consciously and a little belligerently turned our backs on Fitzgerald.»

With his popularity decreased, Fitzgerald began to suffer financially and, by 1936, his book royalties amounted to $80. The cost of his opulent lifestyle and Zelda’s medical bills quickly caught up, placing him in constant debt. He relied on loans from his agent, Harold Ober, and publisher Perkins. When Ober ceased advancing money, an ashamed Fitzgerald severed ties with his agent believing Ober had lost faith in him due to his alcoholism.

As he had been an alcoholic for many years, Fitzgerald’s heavy drinking undermined his health by the late 1930s. His alcoholism resulted in cardiomyopathy, coronary artery disease, angina, dyspnea, and syncopal spells. According to biographer Nancy Milford, Fitzgerald’s claims of having tuberculosis (TB) served as a pretext to cover his drinking ailments. Fitzgerald scholar Matthew J. Bruccoli contends Fitzgerald did in fact have recurring TB. Another biographer, Arthur Mizener, notes Fitzgerald had a mild attack of TB in 1919 and conclusively had a tubercular hemorrhage in 1929. In the 1930s, as his health deteriorated, Fitzgerald had told Hemingway of his fear of dying from congested lungs.

Fitzgerald’s deteriorating health, chronic alcoholism, and financial woes made for difficult years in Baltimore. His friend H. L. Mencken wrote in a June 1934 diary entry that «the case of F. Scott Fitzgerald has become distressing. He is boozing in a wild manner and has become a nuisance. His wife, Zelda, who has been insane for years, is now confined at the Sheppard-Pratt Hospital, and he is living in Park Avenue with his little daughter, Scottie». By 1935, alcoholism disrupted Fitzgerald’s writing and limited his mental acuity. From 1933 to 1937, he was hospitalized for alcoholism eight times. In September 1936, journalist Michel Mok of the New York Post publicly reported Fitzgerald’s alcoholism and career failure in a nationally syndicated article. The article damaged Fitzgerald’s reputation and prompted him to attempt suicide after reading it.

By that same year, Zelda’s intense suicidal mania necessitated her extended confinement at the Highland Hospital in Asheville, North Carolina. Nearly bankrupt, Fitzgerald spent most of 1936 and 1937 living in cheap hotels near Asheville. His attempts to write and sell more short stories faltered. He later referred to this period of decline in his life as «The Crack-Up» in a short story. The sudden death of Fitzgerald’s mother and Zelda’s mental deterioration led to his marriage further disintegrating. He saw Zelda for the last time on a 1939 trip to Cuba. During this trip, spectators at a cockfight beat Fitzgerald when he tried to intervene against animal cruelty. He returned to the United States and—his ill-health exacerbated by excessive drinking—underwent hospitalization at the Doctors Hospital in Manhattan.

Return to Hollywood

Fitzgerald’s dire financial straits compelled him to accept a lucrative contract as a screenwriter with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) in 1937 that necessitated his relocation to Hollywood. Despite earning his highest annual income up to that point ($29,757.87, equivalent to $630,702 in 2023), Fitzgerald spent the bulk of his income on Zelda’s psychiatric treatment and his daughter Scottie’s school expenses. During the next two years, Fitzgerald rented a cheap room at the Garden of Allah bungalow on Sunset Boulevard. In an effort to abstain from alcohol, Fitzgerald drank large amounts of Coca-Cola and ate many sweets.

Estranged from Zelda, Fitzgerald attempted to reunite with his first love Ginevra King when the wealthy Chicago heiress visited Hollywood in 1938. «She was the first girl I ever loved and I have faithfully avoided seeing her up to this moment to keep the illusion perfect,» Fitzgerald informed his daughter Scottie, shortly before the planned meeting. The reunion proved a disaster due to Fitzgerald’s uncontrollable alcoholism, and a disappointed Ginevra returned east to Chicago.

Soon after, a lonely Fitzgerald began a relationship with nationally syndicated gossip columnist Sheilah Graham, his final companion before his death. After having a heart-attack at Schwab’s Pharmacy, Fitzgerald was advised by his doctor to avoid strenuous exertion. Fitzgerald had to climb two flights of stairs to his apartment, while Graham lived on the ground floor. Consequently, he moved in with Graham, who lived in Hollywood on North Hayworth Avenue, one block east of Fitzgerald’s apartment on North Laurel Avenue.

Throughout their relationship, Graham claimed Fitzgerald felt constant guilt over Zelda’s mental illness and confinement. He repeatedly attempted sobriety, had depression, had violent outbursts, and attempted suicide. On occasions that Fitzgerald failed his attempt at sobriety, he would ask strangers, «I’m F. Scott Fitzgerald. You’ve read my books. You’ve read The Great Gatsby, haven’t you? Remember?» As Graham had read none of his works, Fitzgerald attempted to buy her a set of his novels. After visiting several bookstores, he realized they had stopped carrying his works. The realization that he was largely forgotten as an author further depressed him.

During this last phase of his career, Fitzgerald’s screenwriting tasks included revisions on Madame Curie (1943) and an unused dialogue polish for Gone with the Wind (1939)—a book which Fitzgerald disparaged as unoriginal and an «old wives’ tale». Both assignments went uncredited. His work on Three Comrades (1938) became his sole screenplay credit. To the studio’s annoyance, Fitzgerald ignored scriptwriting rules and included descriptions more fitting for a novel. In his spare time, he worked on his fifth novel, The Last Tycoon, based on film executive Irving Thalberg. In 1939, MGM terminated his contract, and Fitzgerald became a freelance screenwriter. During his work on Winter Carnival (1939), Fitzgerald had an alcoholic relapse and sought treatment by New York psychiatrist Richard Hoffmann.

Director Billy Wilder described Fitzgerald’s foray into Hollywood as like that of «a great sculptor who is hired to do a plumbing job». Edmund Wilson and Aaron Latham suggested Hollywood sucked Fitzgerald’s creativity like a vampire. His failure in Hollywood pushed him to return to drinking, and he drank nearly 40 beers a day in 1939. Beginning that year, Fitzgerald mocked himself as a Hollywood hack through the character of Pat Hobby in a sequence of 17 short stories. Esquire originally published the Pat Hobby Stories between January 1940 and July 1941. Approaching the final year of life, Fitzgerald wrote regretfully to his daughter: «I wish now I’d never relaxed or looked back—but said at the end of The Great Gatsby: I’ve found my line—from now on this comes first. This is my immediate duty—without this I am nothing.»

Final year and death

Fitzgerald achieved sobriety over a year before his death, and Graham described their last year together as one of the happiest times of their relationship. On the night of December 20, 1940, Fitzgerald and Graham attended the premiere of This Thing Called Love. As the couple left the Pantages Theatre, a sober Fitzgerald experienced a dizzy spell and had difficulty walking to his vehicle. Watched by onlookers, he remarked in a strained voice to Graham, «I suppose people will think I’m drunk.»

The following day, as Fitzgerald annotated his newly arrived Princeton Alumni Weekly, Graham saw him jump from his armchair, grab the mantelpiece, and collapse on the floor without uttering a sound. Lying flat on his back, he gasped and lapsed into unconsciousness. After failed efforts to revive him, Graham ran to fetch Harry Culver, the building’s manager. Upon entering the apartment, Culver stated, «I’m afraid he’s dead.» Fitzgerald died of a heart attack due to occlusive coronary arteriosclerosis at 44 years old.

On learning of her father’s death, Scottie telephoned Graham from Vassar and asked she not attend the funeral for social propriety. In Graham’s place, her friend Dorothy Parker attended the visitation held in the back room of an undertaker’s parlor. Observing few other people at the visitation, Parker murmured «the poor son of a bitch»—a line from Jay Gatsby’s funeral in The Great Gatsby. When Fitzgerald’s poorly embalmed corpse arrived in Bethesda, Maryland, only thirty people attended his funeral. Among the attendees were his only child, Scottie, his agent Harold Ober, and his lifelong editor Maxwell Perkins.

Zelda eulogized Fitzgerald in a letter to a friend: «He was as spiritually generous a soul as ever was… It seems as if he was always planning happiness for Scottie and for me. Books to read—places to go. Life seemed so promising always when he was around. … Scott was the best friend a person could have to me». At the time of his death, the Roman Catholic Church denied the family’s request that Fitzgerald, a non-practicing Catholic, be buried in the family plot in the Catholic Saint Mary’s Cemetery in Rockville, Maryland. Fitzgerald was buried instead with a simple Protestant service at Rockville Cemetery. When Zelda died in a fire at the Highland Hospital in 1948, she was buried next to him in Rockville Cemetery. In 1975, Scottie successfully petitioned to have the earlier decision revisited, and her parents’ remains were moved to the family plot in Saint Mary’s.

Critical reevaluation

At the time of his death, Fitzgerald believed that his life was a failure and his work was forgotten. The few critics who were familiar with his work regarded him as a failed alcoholic—the embodiment of Jazz Age decadence. In an obituary in The Nation magazine, Margaret Marshall dismissed Fitzgerald as a Jazz Age scribe «who did not fulfill his early promise—his was a fair-weather talent which was not adequate to the stormy age into which it happened, ironically, to emerge.» His New York Times obituary deemed his work forever tied to an era «when gin was the national drink and sex the national obsession». In retrospective reviews that followed after his death, literary critics such as Peter Quennell dismissed his magnum opus The Great Gatsby as merely a nostalgic period piece with «the sadness and the remote jauntiness of a Gershwin tune».

Surveying these posthumous attacks, John Dos Passos opined that many literary critics in popular newspapers lacked the basic discernment about the art of writing. «The strange thing about the articles that came out about Fitzgerald’s death,» Dos Passos later recalled, «was that the writers seemed to feel that they didn’t need to read his books; all they needed for a license to shovel them into the ashcan was to label them as having been written in such and such a period now past.»

Within one year after his death, Edmund Wilson completed Fitzgerald’s unfinished fifth novel The Last Tycoon using the author’s extensive notes, and he included The Great Gatsby within the edition, sparking new interest and discussion among critics. Amid World War II, The Great Gatsby gained further popularity when the Council on Books in Wartime distributed free Armed Services Edition copies to American soldiers serving overseas. The Red Cross distributed the novel to prisoners in Japanese and German POW camps. By 1945, over 123,000 copies of The Great Gatsby had been distributed among U.S. troops. By 1960—thirty-five years after the novel’s original publication—the book was selling 100,000 copies per year. This renewed interest led The New York Times editorialist Arthur Mizener to proclaim the novel a masterwork of American literature.

By the 21st century, The Great Gatsby had sold millions of copies, and the novel is required reading in many high school and college classes. Despite its publication nearly a century ago, the work continues to be cited by scholars as relevant to understanding contemporary America. According to Professor John Kuehl of New York University: «If you want to know about Spain, you read Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises. If you want to know about the South, you read Faulkner. If you want to know what America’s like, you read The Great Gatsby. Fitzgerald is the quintessential American writer.»

Posthumous renown

The Great Gatsby’s popularity led to widespread interest in Fitzgerald himself. By the 1950s, he had become a cult figure in American culture and was more widely known than at any period during his lifetime. In 1952, critic Cyril Connolly observed that «apart from his increasing stature as writer, Fitzgerald is now firmly established as a myth, an American version of the Dying God, an Adonis of letters» whose rise and fall inevitably prompts comparisons to the Jazz Age itself.

Seven years later, Fitzgerald’s friend Edmund Wilson remarked that he now received copious letters from female admirers of Fitzgerald’s works and that his flawed alcoholic friend had posthumously become «a semi-divine personage» in the popular imagination. Echoing these opinions, writer Adam Gopnik asserted that—contrary to Fitzgerald’s claim that «there are no second acts in American lives»—Fitzgerald became «not a poignant footnote to an ill-named time but an enduring legend of the West».

Decades after his death, Fitzgerald’s childhood Summit Terrace home in St. Paul became a National Historic Landmark in 1971. Fitzgerald detested the house and deemed it an architectural monstrosity. In 1990, Hofstra University established the F. Scott Fitzgerald Society, which later became an affiliate of the American Literature Association. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the society organized an online reading of This Side of Paradise to mark its centenary. In 1994, the World Theater in St. Paul—home of the radio broadcast of A Prairie Home Companion—was renamed the Fitzgerald Theater.

Artistry, Literary evolution, Novels

More so than most contemporary writers of his era, F. Scott Fitzgerald’s authorial voice evolved and matured over time, and his each successive novel represented a discernible progression in literary quality. Although his peers eventually hailed him as possessing «the best narrative gift of the century,» this narrative gift was not perceived as immediately evident in his earliest writings. Believing that prose has a basis in lyric verse, Fitzgerald initially crafted his sentences entirely by ear and, consequently, his earliest efforts contained numerous malapropisms and descriptive non sequiturs which irritated both editors and readers. During these early attempts at writing fiction, he received over 122 rejection letters, and the publishing house Scribner’s rejected his first novel three times despite extensive rewrites.

For his first novel, Fitzgerald used as his literary templates H. G. Wells’ 1909 work Tono-Bungay and Sir Compton Mackenzie’s 1913 novel Sinister Street, which chronicled a young college student’s coming-of-age at Oxford University. Although Fitzgerald imitated the plot of Mackenzie’s novel, his debut work differed remarkably due to its experimental style. He discarded the stodgy narrative technique of most novels and instead unspooled the plot in the form of textual fragments, letters, and poetry intermingled together. This atonal blend of different fictive elements prompted cultural elites to fête the young Fitzgerald as a literary trailblazer whose work modernized a staid literature that had lagged «as far behind modern habits as behind modern history.» His work, they declared, pulsed with originality.

Although critics praised This Side of Paradise as highly original, they eviscerated its form and construction. They highlighted the fact that the work had «almost every fault and deficiency that a novel can possibly have,» and a consensus soon emerged that Fitzgerald’s prosemanship left much to be desired. He could write entertainingly, his detractors conceded, but he gave scant attention to form and construction. Having read and digested these criticisms of his debut novel, Fitzgerald sought to improve upon the form and construction of his prose in his next work and to venture into a new genre of fiction altogether.

For his sophomore effort, Fitzgerald discarded the trappings of collegiate bildungsromans and crafted an «ironical-pessimistic» novel in the style of Thomas Hardy’s oeuvre. With the publication of The Beautiful and Damned, editor Max Perkins and others commended the conspicuous evolution in the quality of his prose. Whereas This Side of Paradise had featured workmanlike prose and chaotic organization, The Beautiful and Damned displayed the superior form and construction of an awakened literary consciousness.

Although critics deemed The Beautiful and Damned to be less ground-breaking than its predecessor, many recognized that the vast improvement in literary form and construction between his first and second novels augured great prospects for Fitzgerald’s future. John V. A. Weaver predicted in 1922 that, as Fitzgerald matured as a writer, he would become regarded as one of the greatest authors of American literature. Consequently, expectations arose that Fitzgerald would significantly improve with his third work.

When composing The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald chose to depart from the writing process of his previous novels and to fashion a conscious artistic achievement. He eschewed the realism of his previous two novels and composed a creative work of sustained imagination. To this end, he consciously emulated the literary styles of Joseph Conrad and Willa Cather. He was particularly influenced by Cather’s 1923 work, A Lost Lady, which features a wealthy married socialite pursued by a number of romantic suitors and who symbolically embodies the American dream.

With the publication of The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald had refined his prose style and plot construction, and the literati now hailed him as a master of his craft. Readers complimented him that Gatsby «is compact, economical, polished in the technique of the novel,» and his writing now contained «some of the nicest little touches of contemporary observation you could imagine—so light, so delicate, so sharp». By eliminating the earlier defects in his writing, he had upgraded from «a brilliant improvisateur» to «a conscientious and painstaking artist.» Gertrude Stein posited that Fitzgerald had surpassed contemporary writers such as Hemingway due to his masterful ability to write in natural sentences.

The realization that Fitzgerald had improved as a novelist to point that Gatsby was a masterwork was immediately evident to certain members of the literary world. Edith Wharton lauded Gatsby as such an improvement upon Fitzgerald’s previous work that it represented a «leap into the future» for American novels, and T. S. Eliot believed it represented a turning point in American literature. After reading Gatsby, Gertrude Stein declared that Fitzgerald would «be read when many of his well-known contemporaries are forgotten.»

Nine years after the publication of The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald completed his fourth novel Tender Is the Night in 1934. By this time, the field of literature had greatly changed due to the onset of the Great Depression, and once popular writers such as Fitzgerald and Hemingway who wrote about upper-middle-class lifestyles were now disparaged in literary periodicals whereas so-called «proletarian novelists» enjoyed general applause.

Due to this change, although Fitzgerald showed a mastery of «verbal nuance, flexible rhythm, dramatic construction and essential tragi-comedy» in Tender Is the Night, many reviewers dismissed the work for its disengagement with the political issues of the era. Nevertheless, a minority opinion praised the work as the best American novel since The Great Gatsby. Summarizing Fitzgerald’s artistic journey from apprentice novelist to magisterial author, Burke Van Allen observed that no other American novelist had shown such «a constantly growing mastery of his equipment, and a regularly increasing sensitivity to the esthetic values in life.»

After Fitzgerald’s death, writers such as John Dos Passos assayed Fitzgerald’s gradual progression in literary quality and posited that his uncompleted fifth novel The Last Tycoon could have been Fitzgerald’s greatest achievement. Dos Passos argued in 1945 that Fitzgerald had finally attained a grand and distinctive style as a novelist; consequently, even as an unfinished fragment, the dimensions of his work raised «the level of American fiction» in the same way that «Marlowe’s blank verse line raised the whole of Elizabeth verse.»

Short stories

In contrast to the discernible progression in literary quality and artistic maturity represented by his novels, Fitzgerald’s 164 short stories displayed the opposite tendency and attracted significant criticism. Whereas he composed his novels with a conscious artistic mindset, money became his primary impetus for writing short stories. During the lengthy interludes between novels, his stories sustained him financially, but he lamented that he had «to write a lot of rotten stuff that bores me and makes me depressed.»

Realizing that slick magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post and Esquire were more likely to publish stories that pandered to young love and featured saccharine dénouements, Fitzgerald became adept at tailoring his short fiction to the vicissitudes of commercial tastes. In this fashion, he quickly became one of the highest-paid magazine writers of his era and he earned $4,000 per story from the Saturday Evening Post at the apex of his fame.

From 1920 until his death, Fitzgerald published nearly four pieces per year in the magazine and, in 1931 alone, he earned nearly $40,000 (equivalent to $801,400 in 2023) by churning out seventeen short stories in quick succession.

Although a dazzling extemporizer, Fitzgerald’s short stories were criticized for lacking both thematic coherence and quality. Critic Paul Rosenfeld wrote that many of Fitzgerald’s short stories «lie on a plane inferior to the one upon which his best material extends.» Echoing Hemingway’s critique that Fitzgerald ruined his short stories by rewriting them to appease magazine readers, Rosenfeld noted that Fitzgerald debased his gift as a storyteller by transforming his tales into social romances with inevitably happy endings.

Commenting upon this tendency in Fitzgerald’s short stories, Dos Passos remarked that «everybody who has put pen to paper during the last twenty years has been daily plagued by the difficulty of deciding whether he’s to do ‘good’ writing that will satisfy his conscience or ‘cheap’ writing that will satisfy his pocketbook…. A great deal of Fitzgerald’s own life was made a hell by this sort of schizophrenia.»

Fictive themes, Generational zeitgeist

For much of his literary career, cultural commentators hailed Fitzgerald as the foremost chronicler of the Jazz Age generation whose lives were defined by the societal transition towards modernity. In contrast to the older Lost Generation to which Fitzgerald and Hemingway belonged, the Jazz Age generation were younger Americans who had been adolescents during World War I and were largely untouched by the devastating conflict’s psychological and material horrors.

With his debut novel, Fitzgerald became the first writer to turn the national spotlight upon this generation. He riveted the nation’s attention upon the activities of their sons and daughters cavorting in the rumble seat of Bearcat roadster on a lonely road and sparked a societal debate over their perceived immorality. Due to this thematic focus, his works became a sensation among college students, and the press depicted him as the standard-bearer for «youth in revolt». «No generation of Americans has had a chronicler so persuasive and unmaudlin» as Fitzgerald, Van Allen wrote in 1934, and no author was so identified with the generation recorded.

Remarking upon the cultural association between Fitzgerald and the flaming youth of the Jazz Age, Gertrude Stein wrote in her memoir The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas that the author’s fiction essentially created this new generation in the public’s mind. Echoing this assertion, critics John V. A. Weaver and Edmund Wilson insisted that Fitzgerald imbued the Jazz Age generation with the gift of self-consciousness while simultaneously making the public aware of them as a distinct cohort.

The perception of Fitzgerald as the chronicler of the Jazz Age and its insouciant youth led various societal figures to denounce his writings. They decried his use of modern «alien slang» and claimed his depiction of young people engaged in drunken sprees and premarital sex to be wholly fabricated. Fitzgerald ridiculed such criticisms, and he opined that blinkered pundits wished to dismiss his works in order to retain their outdated conceptions of American society.

As Fitzgerald’s writings made him «the outstanding aggressor in the little warfare» between «the flaming youth against the old guard,» a number of social conservatives later rejoiced when he died. Mere weeks after Fitzgerald’s death in 1940, Westbrook Pegler wrote in a column for The New York World-Telegram that the author’s passing recalled «memories of a queer bunch of undisciplined and self-indulgent brats who were determined not to pull their weight in the boat and wanted the world to drop everything and sit down and bawl with them. A kick in the pants and a clout over the scalp were more like their needing.»

Wealth inequality

A recurrent theme in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s fiction is the psychic and moral gulf between the average American and wealthy elites. This recurrent theme is ascribable to Fitzgerald’s life experiences in which he was «a poor boy in a rich town; a poor boy in a rich boy’s school; a poor boy in a rich man’s club at Princeton.» He «sensed a corruption in the rich and mistrusted their might.» Consequently, he became a vocal critic of America’s leisure class and his works satirized their lives.

This preoccupation with the idle lives of America’s leisure class in Fitzgerald’s fiction attracted criticism. H. L. Mencken believed Fitzgerald’s myopic focus upon the rich detracted from the broader relevance of his societal observations. He argued that «the thing that chiefly interests the basic Fitzgerald is still the florid show of modern American life—and especially the devil’s dance and that goes on at the top. He is unconcerned about the sweating and suffering of the nether herd».

Nevertheless, Mencken conceded that Fitzgerald came the closest to capturing the wealthy’s «idiotic pursuit of sensation, their almost incredible stupidity and triviality, their glittering swinishness». His works skewered those «who take all of the privileges of the European ruling class and assume none of its responsibilities». For this reason, critics predicted that much of Fitzgerald’s fiction would become timeless social documents that captured the naked venality of the hedonistic Jazz Age.

Following Fitzgerald’s death, scholars focused on how Fitzgerald’s fiction dissects the entrenched class disparities in American society. His novel, The Great Gatsby, underscores the limits of the American lower class to transcend their station of birth. Although scholars posit different explanations for the continuation of class differences in the United States, there is a consensus regarding Fitzgerald’s belief in its underlying permanence. Although fundamental conflict occurs between entrenched sources of socio-economic power and upstarts who threaten their interests, Fitzgerald’s fiction shows that a class permanence persists despite the country’s capitalist economy that prizes innovation and adaptability. Even if the poorer Americans become rich, they remain inferior to those Americans with «old money». Consequently, Fitzgerald’s characters are trapped in a rigid American class system.

Otherness

Much of Fitzgerald’s fiction is informed by his life experiences as a societal outsider. As a young boy growing up in the Midwest, he perpetually strained «to meet the standard of the rich people of St. Paul and Chicago among whom he had to grow up without ever having the money to compete with them». His wealthier neighbors viewed the young author and his family to be lower-class, and his classmates at affluent institutions such as Newman and Princeton regarded him as a parvenu. His later life as an expatriate in Europe and as a writer in Hollywood reinforced this lifelong sense of being an outsider.

Consequently, many of Fitzgerald’s characters are defined by their sense of «otherness». In particular, Jay Gatsby, whom other characters belittle as «Mr. Nobody from Nowhere», functions as a cipher because of his obscure origins, his unclear ethno-religious identity and his indeterminate class status. Much like Fitzgerald, Gatsby’s ancestry precludes him from the coveted status of Old Stock Americans. Consequently, Gatsby’s ascent is deemed a threat not only due to his status as nouveau riche, but because he is perceived as an outsider.

Because of such themes, scholars assert that Fitzgerald’s fiction captures the perennial American experience, since it is a story about outsiders and those who resent them—whether such outsiders are newly-arrived immigrants, the nouveau riche, or successful minorities. Since Americans living in the 1920s to the present must navigate a society with entrenched prejudices, Fitzgerald’s depiction of resultant status anxieties and social conflict in his fiction has been highlighted by scholars as still enduringly relevant nearly a hundred years later.

Criticism

Although many contemporary critics and literary peers regarded Fitzgerald as possessing «the best narrative gift of the century.» they nonetheless contended that his fiction lacked engagement with the salient socio-political issues of his time, and he lacked a conscious awareness of how to use his considerable talent as an author.

Poet Edna St. Vincent Millay, who met Fitzgerald during his years abroad in Paris, likened him to «a stupid old woman with whom someone has left a diamond; she is extremely proud of the diamond and shows it to everyone who comes by, and everyone is surprised that such an ignorant old woman should possess so valuable a jewel». His friend Edmund Wilson concurred with Millay’s assessment and averred that Fitzgerald was a gifted writer with a vivid imagination who did not have any intellectual ideas to express. Wilson argued that Fitzgerald’s early works such as This Side of Paradise suffer from the defects of being meaningless and lacking intellectual substance.

Wilson attempted to convince Fitzgerald to write about America’s social problems, but Fitzgerald did not believe that fiction should be used as a political instrument. Wilson also pressed Fitzgerald to support causes like the defense of Sacco and Vanzetti, but Fitzgerald had no interest in activism, and he became annoyed to even read articles about the politically-fraught Sacco and Vanzetti case, which became a cause célèbre among American literati during the 1920s. Largely indifferent to politics, Fitzgerald himself ascribed the lack of ideational substance in his fiction to his upbringing, as his parents were likewise uninterested in such matters.

Fitzgerald partly justified the perceived lack of political and intellectual substance in his fiction by arguing that he was writing for a new, largely apolitical, generation «dedicated more than the last to the fear of poverty and the worship of success; grown up to find all Gods dead, all wars fought, all faiths in man shaken.» «Nobody was interested in politics,» Fitzgerald declared of this particular generation, and, as «it was characteristic of the Jazz Age that it had no interest in politics at all», Fitzgerald’s fiction reflected the contemporary zeitgeist’s perfunctory cynicism and aversion to political crusades in the wake of Prohibition.

Appropriative tendency

Throughout his literary career, Fitzgerald often drew upon the private correspondence, diary entries, and life experiences of other persons to use in his fiction. While writing This Side of Paradise, Fitzgerald quoted verbatim entire letters sent to him by his Catholic mentor, Father Sigourney Fay. In addition to using Fay’s correspondence, Fitzgerald drew upon anecdotes that Fay had told him about his private life. When reading This Side of Paradise, Fay wrote to Fitzgerald that the use of his own biographical experiences told in confidence to the young author «gave him a queer feeling.»

Fitzgerald continued this practice throughout his life. While writing The Beautiful and Damned, Fitzgerald inserted sentences from his wife’s diary. When his friend Burton Rascoe asked Zelda to review the book for the New-York Tribune as a publicity stunt, she wrote—partly in jest—that it «seems to me that on one page I recognized a portion of an old diary of mine which mysteriously disappeared shortly after my marriage, and also scraps of letters, which, though considerably edited, sound to me vaguely familiar.» Similarly, Fitzgerald borrowed biographical incidents from his friend, Ludlow Fowler, for his short story «The Rich Boy». Fowler asked that certain passages be excised prior to publication. Fitzgerald acquiesced to this request, but the passages were restored in later reprints after Fitzgerald’s death.

Perhaps the most striking example of this tendency lies at the core of The Great Gatsby. As a parting gift before their relationship ended, Ginevra King—the inspiration for Daisy Buchanan—wrote a story that she sent to Fitzgerald. In her story, she is trapped in a loveless marriage with a wealthy man, yet still pines for Fitzgerald, a former lover from her past. The lovers are reunited only after Fitzgerald has attained enough money to take her away from her adulterous husband. Fitzgerald frequently re-read Ginevra’s story, and scholars have noted the plot similarities between Ginevra’s story and Fitzgerald’s novel.

Influence and legacy

As one of the leading authorial voices of the Jazz Age, Fitzgerald’s literary style influenced a number of contemporary and future writers. As early as 1922, critic John V. A. Weaver noted that Fitzgerald’s literary influence was already «so great that it cannot be estimated.»

Similar to Edith Wharton and Henry James, Fitzgerald’s style often used a series of disconnected scenes to convey plot developments. His lifelong editor Max Perkins described this particular technique as creating the impression for the reader of a railroad journey in which the vividness of passing scenes blaze with life. In the style of Joseph Conrad, Fitzgerald often employed a narrator’s device to unify these passing scenes and imbue them with deeper meaning.

Gatsby remains Fitzgerald’s most influential literary work as an author. The publication of The Great Gatsby prompted poet T. S. Eliot to opine that the novel was the most significant evolution in American fiction since the works of Henry James. Charles Jackson, author of The Lost Weekend, wrote that Gatsby was the only flawless novel in the history of American literature. Later authors Budd Schulberg and Edward Newhouse were deeply affected by it, and John O’Hara acknowledged its influence on his work. Richard Yates, a writer often compared to Fitzgerald, hailed The Great Gatsby as showcasing Fitzgerald’s miraculous talent and triumphal literary technique. An editorial in The New York Times summarized the considerable influence of Fitzgerald upon contemporary writers and Americans in general during the Jazz Age: «In the literary sense he invented a ‘generation’ … He might have interpreted them, and even guided them, as in their middle years they saw a different and nobler freedom threatened with destruction.»

Adaptations and portrayals of F. Scott Fitzgerald

Fitzgerald’s stories and novels have been adapted into a variety of media formats. His earliest short stories were cinematically adapted as flapper comedies such as The Husband Hunter (1920), The Chorus Girl’s Romance (1920), and The Off-Shore Pirate (1921). Other Fitzgerald short stories have been adapted into episodes of anthology television series, as well as the 2008 film The Curious Case of Benjamin Button. Nearly every novel by Fitzgerald has been adapted for the screen. His second novel The Beautiful and Damned was filmed in 1922 and 2010. His third novel The Great Gatsby has been adapted numerous times for both film and television, most notably in 1926, 1949, 1958, 1974, 2000, and 2013. His fourth novel Tender Is the Night was made into a 1955 CBS television episode, an eponymous 1962 film, and a BBC television miniseries in 1985. The Last Tycoon has been adapted into a 1976 film, and a 2016 Amazon Prime TV miniseries.

Beyond adaptations of his works, Fitzgerald himself has been portrayed in dozens of books, plays, and films. He inspired Budd Schulberg’s novel The Disenchanted (1950), later adapted into a Broadway play starring Jason Robards. Other theatrical productions of Fitzgerald’s life include Frank Wildhorn’s 2005 musical Waiting for the Moon, and a musical produced by the Japanese Takarazuka Revue. Fitzgerald’s relationships with Sheilah Graham and Frances Kroll Ring respectively served as the basis for the films Beloved Infidel (1959) and Last Call (2002). Fitzgerald and his wife Zelda have appeared as characters in the films Midnight in Paris (2011) and Genius (2016). Other depictions of Fitzgerald include the TV movies Zelda (1993), F. Scott Fitzgerald in Hollywood (1976), The Last of the Belles (1974), and the TV series Z: The Beginning of Everything (2015).

F. Scott Fitzgerald bibliography

Novels

This Side of Paradise Scribners, 1920

The Beautiful and Damned Scribners, 1922

The Great Gatsby Scribners, 1925

Tender Is the Night Scribners, 1934 Original version (1934)
Version edited by Malcolm Cowley (1951)

The Last Tycoon (First version)
The Love of the Last Tycoon (Second version) Scribners, 1941
Cambridge University, 1993

Flappers and Philosophers (1920)
Tales of the Jazz Age (1922)
All the Sad Young Men (1926)

Short story collections

Flappers and Philosophers Scribners, 1920 8 short stories:
«The Offshore Pirate», «The Ice Palace», «Head and Shoulders», «The Cut-Glass Bowl», «Bernice Bobs Her Hair», «Benediction», «Dalyrimple Goes Wrong», «The Four Fists»

Tales of the Jazz Age Scribners, 1922 11 short stories:
«The Jelly-Bean», «The Camel’s Back», «May Day», «Porcelain and Pink», «The Diamond as Big as the Ritz», «The Curious Case of Benjamin Button», «Tarquin of Cheapside», «Oh Russet Witch!», «The Lees of Happiness», «Mr. Icky», «Jemina»

All the Sad Young Men Scribners, 1926 9 short stories:
«The Rich Boy», «Winter Dreams», «The Baby Party», «Absolution», «Rags Martin-Jones and the Pr-nce of W-les», «The Adjuster», «Hot and Cold Blood», «The Sensible Thing», «Gretchen’s Forty Winks»

Taps at Reveille Scribners, 1935 18 short stories;
Stories about Basil Duke Lee: «The Scandal Detectives», «The Freshest Boy», «He Thinks He’s Wonderful», «The Captured Shadow» and «The Perfect Life»

Stories about Josephine Perry: «First Blood», «A Nice Quiet Place» and «A Woman with a Past»

Others: «Crazy Sunday», «Two Wrongs», «The Night of Chancellorsville», «The Last of the Belles», «Majesty», «Family in the Wind», «A Short Trip Home», «One Interne», «The Fiend», «Babylon Revisited»

Posthumous

The Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald Scribners, 1951 28 short stories, 10 not previously collected and 4 sets of editorial notes

Babylon Revisited and Other Stories Scribners, 1960 10 short stories;
«The Ice Palace», «May Day», «The Diamond as Big as the Ritz», «Winter Dreams», «Absolution», «The Rich Boy», «The Freshest Boy», «Babylon Revisited», «Crazy Sunday», «The Long Way Out»

The Pat Hobby Stories Scribners, 1962 All 17 short stories about the fictional screenwriter Pat Hobby

The Apprentice Fiction of F. Scott Fitzgerald Rutgers University Press, 1965 16 early stories

The Basil and Josephine Stories Scribners, 1973 14 short stories;
9 about Basil and 5 about Josephine:
Stories about Basil Duke Lee: «That Kind of Party», «The Scandal Detectives», «A Night at the Fair», «The Freshest Boy», «He Thinks He’s Wonderful», «The Captured Shadow», «The Perfect Life», «Forging Ahead», «Basil and Cleopatra» Stories about Josephine Perry: «First Blood», «A Nice Quiet Place», «A Woman with a Past», «A Snobbish Story», «Emotional Bankruptcy»

Bits of Paradise Scribners, 1974 21 stories by Fitzgerald and his wife Zelda by F. Scott: «The Popular Girl», «Love in the Night», «A Penny Spent», «The Dance», «Jacobs Ladder», «The Swimmers», «The Hotel Child», «A New Leaf», «What a Handsome Pair!», «Last Kiss», «Dearly Beloved» by Zelda: «The Original Follies Girl», «Southern Girl», «The Girl the Prince Liked», «The Girl with Talent», «A Millionaire’s Girl», «Poor Working Girl», «Miss Ella», «The Continental Angle», «A Couple of Nuts»
Scott and Zelda: «Our Own Movie Queen»

The Price Was High: Fifty Uncollected Stories by F. Scott Fitzgerald
The Short Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald Scribners, 1989 all available in earlier collections
I’d Die For You: And Other Lost Stories Simon & Schuster, April 2017 18 stories, scenarios and fragments

Other books

The Vegetable Scribners, 1923

Posthumous

The Crack-Up New Directions, 1945 10 essays, selections from the notebooks and letters

Afternoon of an Author Scribners, 1958 13 stories and 7 essays, with individual editorial notes Internet Archive

Poems 1911–1940 S.C.: Bruccoli Clark, 1981 25 poems
Novels and Stories 1920–1922 Library of America, 2000 This Side of Paradise;
Flappers and Philosophers;
The Beautiful and Damned;
Tales of the Jazz Age
The Great Gatsby, All the Sad Young Men & Other Writings 1920–1926 Library of America, 2022 The Great Gatsby;

All the Sad Young Men;
16 Stories and 9 essays
Before Gatsby: The First Twenty-Six Stories University of South Carolina Press, 2001 all available in earlier collections

Letters

Posthumous

The Letters of F. Scott Fitzgerald Scribners, 1964 Letters from Fitzgerald to:
his wife, his daughter, his cousin Cecilia, Hemingway,
Perkins, Bishop, Turnbull, Gauss, Ober, Wilson,
and Gerald & Shelia Murphy

Dear Scott/Dear Max Scribners, 1971 Correspondence between Fitzgerald and Maxwell Perkins.
As Ever, Scott Fitz— J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1972 Correspondence between Fitzgerald and Harold Ober.

Correspondence of F. Scott Fitzgerald Random House, 1980

F. Scott Fitzgerald: A Life in Letters Scribners, 1994

Short stories 1909–1919

«The Mystery of the Raymond Mortgage» St. Paul Academy Now and Then (Oct 1909) The Apprentice Fiction of F. Scott Fitzgerald (1965)

«Reade, Substitute Right Half» St. Paul Academy Now and Then (Feb 1910)

«A Debt of Honor» St. Paul Academy Now and Then (March 1910)

«The Room with the Green Blinds» St. Paul Academy Now and Then (June 1911)

«A Luckless Santa Claus» Newman News (Dec 24, 1912)

«Pain and the Scientist» Newman News (1913)

«The Trail of the Duke» Newman News (June 1913)

«Shadow Laurels» Nassau Literary Magazine (April 1915)

«The Ordeal» Nassau Literary Magazine (June 1915)

«The Débutante» Nassau Literary Magazine (Jan 1917)

«The Spire and the Gargoyle» Nassau Literary Magazine (Feb 1917)

«Tarquin of Cheapside» Nassau Literary Magazine (April 1917)

The Smart Set (Feb 1921)

«Babes in the Woods» Nassau Literary Magazine (May 1917)

«Sentiment—And the Use of Rouge» Nassau Literary Magazine (June 1917)

«The Pierian Springs and the Last Straw» Nassau Literary Magazine (Oct 1917)

1920–1924

«Porcelain and Pink» The Smart Set (Jan 1920) Tales of the Jazz Age (1922)

«Head and Shoulders» The Saturday Evening Post (21 Feb 1920)

Flappers and Philosophers (1920)

«Benediction» The Smart Set (Feb 1920)

«Dalyrimple Goes Wrong» The Smart Set (Feb 1920)

«Myra Meets His Family» The Saturday Evening Post (March 20, 1920)

The Price Was High (1979)

«Mister Icky» The Smart Set (March 1920) Tales of the Jazz Age (1922)

«The Camel’s Back» The Saturday Evening Post (April 24, 1920)

«Bernice Bobs Her Hair» The Saturday Evening Post (May 1, 1920)

Flappers and Philosophers (1920)

«The Ice Palace» The Saturday Evening Post (May 22, 1920)

«The Offshore Pirate» The Saturday Evening Post (May 29, 1920)

«The Cut-Glass Bowl» Scribner’s Magazine (May 1920)

«The Four Fists» Scribner’s Magazine (June 1920)

«The Smilers» The Smart Set (June 1920)

The Price Was High (1979)

«May Day» The Smart Set (July 1920) Tales of the Jazz Age (1922)

«The Jelly-Bean» Metropolitan Magazine (Oct 1920)

«The Lees of Happiness» Chicago Sunday Tribune (Dec 12, 1920)

«Jemina» Vanity Fair (Jan 1921)

«O Russet Witch!» Metropolitan Magazine (Feb 1921)
«The Popular Girl» The Saturday Evening Post (Feb 11 & 18, 1922)

Bits of Paradise (1974)

«Two for a Cent»Metropolitan Magazine (April 1922)

The Price Was High (1979)

«The Curious Case of Benjamin Button» Collier’s (May 27, 1922)

Tales of the Jazz Age (1922)

«The Diamond as Big as the Ritz» The Smart Set (June 1922)

«Winter Dreams» Metropolitan Magazine (Dec 1922) All the Sad Young Men (1926)

«Dice, Brassknuckles & Guitar» Hearst’s International Cosmopolitan (May 1923)

The Price Was High (1979)

«Hot & Cold Blood» Hearst’s International Cosmopolitan (Aug 1923)

All the Sad Young Men (1926)

«Gretchen’s Forty Winks» The Saturday Evening Post (March 15, 1924)

«Diamond Dick and the First Law of Woman» Hearst’s International Cosmopolitan (April 1924)

The Price Was High (1979)

«The Third Casket» The Saturday Evening Post (May 31, 1924)

«Absolution» The American Mercury (June 1924) All the Sad Young Men (1926)

«The Sensible Thing» Liberty (July 5, 1924)

«The Unspeakable Egg» The Saturday Evening Post (July 12, 1924)

The Price Was High (1979)

«John Jackson’s Arcady» The Saturday Evening Post (July 26, 1924)

1925–1929

«The Baby Party» Hearst’s International Cosmopolitan (Feb 1925)

All the Sad Young Men (1926)

«The Pusher-in-the-Face» Woman’s Home Companion (Feb 1925)

The Price Was High (1979)

«Love in the Night» The Saturday Evening Post (March 14, 1925)

Bits of Paradise (1974)

«One of My Oldest Friends» Woman’s Home Companion (Sep 1925)

The Price Was High (1979)

«The Adjuster» The Redbook Magazine (Sep 1925)

All the Sad Young Men (1926)

«A Penny Spent» The Saturday Evening Post (Oct 10, 1925)

Bits of Paradise (1974)

«Not in the Guidebook» Woman’s Home Companion (Nov 1925)

The Price Was High (1979)

«The Rich Boy» The Redbook Magazine (Jan/Feb 1926)

All the Sad Young Men (1926)

«Presumption» The Saturday Evening Post (Jan 9, 1926)

The Price Was High (1979)

«The Adolescent Marriage» The Saturday Evening Post (March 6, 1926)

«The Dance» The Redbook Magazine (June 1926)

Bits of Paradise (1974)

«Rags Martin-Jones and the Pr-nce of W-les» McCall’s (July 1926)

All the Sad Young Men (1926)

«Your Way and Mine» Woman’s Home Companion (May 1927)

The Price Was High (1979)

«Jacob’s Ladder» The Saturday Evening Post (Aug 20, 1927)

Bits of Paradise (1974)

«The Love Boat» The Saturday Evening Post (Oct 8, 1927)

The Price Was High (1979)

«A Short Trip Home» The Saturday Evening Post (Dec 17, 1927)

Taps at Reveille (1935)

«The Bowl» The Saturday Evening Post (Jan 21, 1928)

The Price Was High (1979)

«Magnetism» The Saturday Evening Post (March 3, 1928)

The Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald (1951)

«The Scandal Detectives» The Saturday Evening Post (April 28, 1928)

Taps at Reveille (1935)

The Basil and Josephine Stories (1973)

«A Night at the Fair» The Saturday Evening Post (July 21, 1928)

The Basil and Josephine Stories (1973)

«The Freshest Boy» The Saturday Evening Post (July 28, 1928)

Taps at Reveille (1935)

The Basil and Josephine Stories (1973)

«He Thinks He’s Wonderful» The Saturday Evening Post (Sep 29, 1928)

«The Captured Shadow» The Saturday Evening Post (Dec 29, 1928)

«Outside the Cabinet-Maker’s» The Century Magazine (Dec 1928)

Afternoon of an Author (1958)

«The Perfect Life» The Saturday Evening Post (Jan 5, 1929)

Taps at Reveille (1935)

The Basil and Josephine Stories (1973)

«The Last of the Belles» The Saturday Evening Post (March 2, 1929)

Taps at Reveille (1935)

«Forging Ahead» The Saturday Evening Post (March 30, 1929)

The Basil and Josephine Stories (1973)

«Basil and Cleopatra» The Saturday Evening Post (April 27, 1929)

«The Rough Crossing» The Saturday Evening Post (June 8, 1929)

The Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald (1951)

«Majesty» The Saturday Evening Post (July 13, 1929)

Taps at Reveille (1935)

«At Your Age» The Saturday Evening Post (Aug 17, 1929)

The Price Was High (1979)

«The Swimmers» The Saturday Evening Post (Oct 19, 1929)

Bits of Paradise (1974)

1930–1934

«Two Wrongs» The Saturday Evening Post (Jan 18, 1930)

Taps at Reveille (1935)

The Basil and Josephine Stories (1973)

«First Blood» The Saturday Evening Post (April 5, 1930)

«A Nice Quiet Place» The Saturday Evening Post (May 31, 1930)

«The Bridal Party» The Saturday Evening Post (Aug 9, 1930)

The Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald

«A Woman with a Past» The Saturday Evening Post (Sep 6, 1930) Taps at Reveille (1935)

The Basil and Josephine Stories (1973)

«One Trip Abroad» The Saturday Evening Post (Oct 11, 1930)

Afternoon of an Author (1958)

«A Snobbish Story» The Saturday Evening Post (Nov 29, 1930)

The Basil and Josephine Stories (1973)

«The Hotel Child» The Saturday Evening Post (Jan 31, 1931)

Bits of Paradise (1974)

«Babylon Revisited» The Saturday Evening Post, (Feb 21, 1931)

Taps at Reveille (1935)

«Indecision» The Saturday Evening Post (May 16, 1931)

The Price Was High (1979)

«A New Leaf» The Saturday Evening Post (July 4, 1931)

Bits of Paradise (1974)

«Emotional Bankruptcy» The Saturday Evening Post (Aug 15, 1931)

The Basil and Josephine Stories (1973)

«Between Three and Four» The Saturday Evening Post (Sep 5, 1931)

The Price Was High (1979)

«A Change of Class» The Saturday Evening Post (Sep 26, 1931)

«A Freeze-Out» The Saturday Evening Post (Dec 19, 1931)

«Diagnosis» The Saturday Evening Post (Feb 20, 1932)

«Six of One» Redbook (Feb 1932)

«Flight and Pursuit» The Saturday Evening Post (May 14, 1932)

«Family in the Wind» The Saturday Evening Post (June 4, 1932)

Taps at Reveille (1935)

«The Rubber Check» The Saturday Evening Post (Aug 6, 1932)

The Price Was High (1979)

«What a Handsome Pair!» The Saturday Evening Post (Aug 27, 1932)

Bits of Paradise (1974)

«Crazy Sunday» The American Mercury (Oct 1932)

Taps at Reveille (1935)

«One Interne» The Saturday Evening Post (Nov 5, 1932)

«On Schedule» The Saturday Evening Post (March 18, 1933)

The Price Was High (1979)

«More Than Just a House» The Saturday Evening Post (June 24, 1933)

«I Got Shoes» The Saturday Evening Post (Sep 1933)

«The Family Bus» The Saturday Evening Post (Nov 1933)

«No Flowers» The Saturday Evening Post (July 1934)

«New Types» The Saturday Evening Post (Sep 1934)

«In the Darkest Hour» Redbook (Oct 1934)

«Her Last Case» The Saturday Evening Post (Nov 1934)

1935–1940

«The Fiend» Esquire (Jan 1935) Taps at Reveille (1935)

«The Night of Chancellorsville» Esquire (Feb 1935)

«Shaggy’s Morning» Esquire (May 1935) Not part of a collection

«The Count of Darkness» Redbook (June 1935) part of planned Philippe stories

«The Intimate Strangers» McCall’s (June 1935) The Price Was High (1979)

«Zone of Accident» The Saturday Evening Post (July 1935) «Fate in Her Hands»

aka «What You Don’t Know» American Magazine (April 1936)

«Image on the Heart» McCall’s (April 1936)

«Too Cute for Words» The Saturday Evening Post (April 1936) part of planned Gwen stories

«Three Acts of Music» Esquire (May 1936)

«Inside the House» The Saturday Evening Post (June 1936) part of planned Gwen stories

«An Author’s Mother» Esquire (Sep 1936)

«‘Trouble'» The Saturday Evening Post (March 1937) part of planned Trouble stories

«The Guest in Room Nineteen» Esquire (Oct 1937)

«In the Holidays» Esquire (Dec 1937)

«The End of Hate» Collier’s (June 22, 1940)

«The Kingdom in the Dark» Redbook (Aug 1935) Not part of a collection part of planned Philippe stories

«The Ants at Princeton» Esquire (June 1, 1936)

«Author’s House» Esquire (July 1936) Afternoon of an Author (1958)

«Afternoon of an Author»Esquire (Aug 1936)

«I Didn’t Get Over» Esquire (Oct 1936)

«Design in Plaster» Esquire (Nov 1939)

«An Alcoholic Case» Esquire (Feb 1937) The Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald (1951)

«The Long Way Out» Esquire (Sep 1937)

«Financing Finnegan» Esquire (Jan 1938)

«The Lost Decade» Esquire (Dec 1939)

«Strange Sanctuary» Liberty (Dec 1939) Not part of a collection written in 1936 as «Make Yourself at Home». Intended as fourth Gwen story.

«Pat Hobby’s Christmas Wish» Esquire (Jan 1940)

The Pat Hobby Stories (1962)

«A Man in the Way» Esquire (Feb 1940)

«‘Boil Some Water — Lots of It’» Esquire (March 1940)

«Teamed with Genius» Esquire (April 1940)

«Pat Hobby and Orson Welles» Esquire (May 1940)

«Pat Hobby’s Secret» Esquire (June 1940)

«Pat Hobby, Putative Father» Esquire (July 1940)

«The Homes of the Stars» Esquire (Aug 1940)

«Pat Hobby Does His Bit» Esquire (Sep 1940)

«Pat Hobby’s Preview» Esquire (Oct 1940)

«No Harm Trying» Esquire (Nov 1940)

«A Patriotic Short» Esquire (Dec 1, 1940)

Posthumously

«Three Hours Between Planes» Esquire (July 1, 1941)

The Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald (1951)

«News of Paris — Fifteen Years Ago» Furioso (Winter 1947)

Afternoon of an Author (1958) written in 1940

«On the Trail of Pat Hobby» Esquire (Jan 1, 1941)

The Pat Hobby Stories (1962)

«Fun in an Artist’s Studio» Esquire (Feb 1, 1941)

«Two Old-Timers» Esquire (March 1, 1941)

«Mightier than the Sword» Esquire (April 1, 1941)

«Pat Hobby’s College Days» Esquire (May 1, 1941)

«That Kind of Party» The Princeton University Library Chronicle (Summer 1951)

The Basil and Josephine Stories (1973)

«Last Kiss» Collier’s (April 16, 1949) Bits of Paradise (1974) written in 1940

«Dearly Beloved» Fitzgerald / Hemingway Annual (Jan 1, 1969)

«On an Ocean Wave» Esquire (Feb 1, 1941) The Price Was High (1979) written as Paul Elgin

«The Woman from Twenty-One» Esquire (June 1, 1941)

1. Birmingham, Frederic A., ed. (1953). The girls from Esquire. London: Arthur Barker.
2. The Price Was High (1979)

«Discard» Harper’s Bazaar (Jan 1948)

The Price Was High (1979) written in July 1939 as «Director’s Special»

«Lo, the Poor Peacock» Esquire (Sep 1, 1971) written in 1935; declined by Saturday Evening Post

«On Your Own» Esquire (Jan 30, 1979) written in 1931

«Gods of Darkness» Redbook (Nov 1941) Not part of a collection written in 1934, part of planned Philippe stories

«The Broadcast We Almost Heard Last September» Furioso (Fall 1947)

«The World’s Fair» The Kenyon Review (Autumn 1948)

«A Full Life» The Princeton University Library Chronicle (Winter 1988)

«Thank You for the Light» The New Yorker (August 6, 2012)

I’d Die For You (2017) written in 1936; declined by The New Yorker

«The Women in the House» (1936; original version)

«Temperature» (2015: short version with a new title) The Strand Magazine (July-Sept 2015)

«The I.O.U.» «The I.O.U.» The New Yorker. Vol. 93, no. 5. March 20, 2017. pp. 80–87. written 1920; declined by Harper’s Bazaar

«The Couple» Never published written between Apr 1920 and Oct 1922

«Nightmare» aka «Fantasy in Black» Never published written in 1932;
parts used for Tender is the Night

«What to Do About It» Never published written 1933; declined by Saturday Evening Post

«Travel Together» Never published written in 1934

«Gracie at Sea» Never published written in 1934; movie treatment with Robert Spafford

«I’d Die for You» aka «The Legend of Lake Lure» Never published written in 1935

«The Pearl and the Fur» Never published written in 1935; declined by Saturday Evening Post

«Day off from Love» Never published written between 1935 and 1936; fragment

«Cyclone in Silent Land» Never published written in 1936;
declined by Saturday Evening Post

«Thumbs Up» Never published written in 1936; early version of «The End of Hate» 1940

«Dentist Appointment» Never published written in 1937;
another version of «The End of Hate» 1940

«Offside Play» aka «Athletic Interval» Never published written in 1937; declined by Saturday Evening Post

«Ballet Shoes» aka «Ballet Slippers» Fitzgerald / Hemingway Annual (Jan 1, 1976) written in 1936; movie treatment

«Salute to Lucy and Elsie» Never published written in 1939;
declined by Esquire

«Love is a Pain» Never published written in 1939/40; screenplay

Cambridge Edition

The Great Gatsby

The Great Gatsby (1991) | ISBN 9780521402309

Trimalchio: An Early Version of The Great Gatsby (2000) | ISBN 9780521402378

The Great Gatsby: An Edition of the Manuscript (2018) | ISBN 9781108426800

The Great Gatsby: A Variorum Edition (2019) | ISBN 9780521766203

Other books

The Love of the Last Tycoon: A Western (1993) | ISBN 9780521402316

This Side of Paradise (1996) 9780521402347

Flappers and Philosophers (1999) | ISBN 9780521402361

Tales of the Jazz Age (2002) | ISBN 9780521402385

My Lost City: Personal Essays, 1920–1940 (2005) | ISBN 9780521402392

All The Sad Young Men (2007) | ISBN 9780521402408

The Beautiful and Damned (2008) | ISBN 9780521883665

The Lost Decade: Short Stories from Esquire, 1936–1941 (2008) | ISBN 9780521885300

The Basil, Josephine, and Gwen Stories (2009) | ISBN 9780521769730

Spires and Gargoyles: Early Writings, 1909–1919 (2010) | ISBN 9780521765923

Tender Is the Night (2012) | ISBN 9780521402323

Taps at Reveille (2014) | ISBN 9780521766036

A Change of Class (2016) | ISBN 9780521402354

Last Kiss (2017) | ISBN 9780521766135

Film

1922: The Beautiful and Damned, with Marie Prevost and Kenneth Harlan. The silent film is considered as lost.

1926: The Great Gatsby, with Warner Baxter, Lois Wilson, Neil Hamilton, Hale Hamilton, William Powell, Georgia Hale, and Carmelita Geraghty. The silent film is considered as lost.

1949: The Great Gatsby, with Alan Ladd, Betty Field, Macdonald Carey, Barry Sullivan, Howard Da Silva, Shelley Winters, and Ruth Hussey.

1962: Tender Is the Night, with Jennifer Jones, Jason Robards, Jr., Joan Fontaine, and Tom Ewell. The film was nominated for an Academy Awards.

1974: The Great Gatsby, with Robert Redford, Mia Farrow, Sam Waterston, Bruce Dern, Scott Wilson, Karen Black, and Lois Chiles. The film won two Academy Awards.

1976: The Last Tycoon, with Robert de Niro, Tony Curtis, Robert Mitchum, Jack Nicholson, Donald Pleasence, Jeanne Moreau, Theresa Russell, and Ingrid Boulting. The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Art Direction.

2008: The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, with Brad Pitt, Cate Blanchett, Taraji P. Henson, Mahershala Ali, and Tilda Swinton. The film received thirteen Academy Award nominations, the most of the 81st Academy Awards, including for Best Picture. It won three Academy Award.

2013: The Great Gatsby, with Leonardo DiCaprio, Carey Mulligan, Tobey Maguire, Joel Edgerton, Jason Clarke, Isla Fisher, Elizabeth Debicki, and Amitabh Bachchan. The film won two Academy Awards.

Television

1955: The Diamond as Big as the Ritz, a television film, broadcast on Kraft Theatre, with Lee Remick and Elizabeth Montgomery.

1957: The Last Tycoon, an episode of the anthology series Playhouse 90, with Peter Strauss, Mary Steenburgen, and Sean Young.

1985: Tender Is the Night, a television series, with Mary Steenburgen and Peter Strauss.

2000: The Great Gatsby, a television film, broadcast on the BBC, with Toby Stephens, Mira Sorvino, Paul Rudd, Martin Donovan, Bill Camp, Heather Goldenhersh, and Francie Swift.

2016–2017: The Last Tycoon, a television series, with Matt Bomer, Kelsey Grammer, Lily Collins, Dominique McElligott, Enzo Cilenti, Koen De Bouw, Mark O’Brien, and Rosemarie DeWitt. The series was nominated for three Primetime Emmy Awards.

Opera

1999: The Great Gatsby, composed by John Harbison.

Lost manuscripts

In 2004, the University of South Carolina purchased a newly discovered cache of 2,000 pages of screenplay work that Fitzgerald wrote for MGM while in Hollywood. The cache demonstrates that Fitzgerald put considerable effort into his attempts at screenwriting during his final years. He approached each screenplay assignment by MGM as if it were a novel, and he wrote extensive back-stories for every character before typing a single word of dialogue. Despite these herculean efforts, the studio nonetheless found his work unsatisfactory and chose not to renew his contract.

In 2015, The Strand Magazine published an 8,000-word lost manuscript by Fitzgerald entitled «Temperature», dated July 1939. Long thought lost, the manuscript was found by a researcher in Princeton’s archives. The story recounts the illness and decline of an alcoholic writer among Hollywood idols in Los Angeles while suffering lingering fevers and indulging in light-hearted romance with a Hollywood actress. Two years later, Scribner’s published a rediscovered cache of Fitzgerald’s short stories in a collection titled I’d Die For You.