deliberation See ACTION THEORY, PRACTICAL REA -. SONIN. de Maistre, Joseph-Marie (1753–1821), French political theorist, diplomat, and Roman Catholic exponent of theocracy. He was educated by the Jesuits in Turin. His counterrevolutionary political philosophy aimed at restoring the foundations of morality, the family, society, and the state in postrevolutionary Europe. Against Enlightenment ideals, he reclaimed Thomism, defended the hereditary and absolute monarchy, and championed ultramontanism (The Pope, 1821). Considerations on France (1796) argues that the decline of moral and religious values was responsible for the ‘satanic’ 1789 revolution. Hence Christianity and Enlightenment philosophy were engaged in a fight to the death that he claimed the church would eventually win. Deeply pessimistic about human nature, the Essay on the Generating Principle of Political Constitutions (1810) traces the origin of authority in the human craving for order and discipline. Saint Petersburg Evenings (1821) urges philosophy to surrender to religion and reason to faith. J.-L.S.