Hsün Tzu (third century B.C.), a tough-minded Confucian philosopher best known for his opposition to Mencius’s conception of the inherent goodness of human nature. For Hsün Tzu, the essential nature of human beings is bad in the sense of possessing a problematical motivational structure: every human seeks to satisfy his/her desires; unless guided by li (propriety) and i (rightness), these desires inevitably lead to conflict especially in view of the scarcity of goods and the native human tendency toward partiality for one’s own benefits and for those of one’s close relations. Significantly, the li or rules of proper behavior perform three basic functions: delimiting, supportive, and ennobling. The first draws the boundaries of proper conduct; the second provides channels for satisfaction of desires within these boundaries; and the third provides sources for ennobling personal character in accordance with jen (benevolence) and i (rightness). Hsün Tzu is also noted for emphasizing law as a supplement to li (rules of proper conduct); the need of argumentation to resolve ethical disagreement; the importance of clarity of mind, as opposed to pi (obscuration) in the pursuit of ethical knowledge; and the importance of Confucian classics in character education. See also MENCIU. A.S.C.