kalam an Arabic term denoting a form of religious and theological discourse. The word itself literally means ‘argue’ or ‘discuss’; although often translated as ‘theology’ or ‘dialectical theology’, the Muslim usage does not correspond exactly. In origin kalam was an argumentative reaction to certain perceived doctrinal deviations on key issues – e.g., the status of the sinner, the justice of God, attributes of God. Thus themes and content in kalam were normally historically specific and not generally speculative. Later, in a formal confrontation with philosophy, the predominantly dialectical mode of reasoning employed until the twelfth century was replaced by full use of syllogistic methods. Ultimately, the range of speculation grew until, in the sophisticated compendiums of the major authorities, kalam became intellectually speculative as well as doctrinally defensive.
In a major development, one school of kalam – the Ash’arites – adopted an atomistic theory that rejected the necessity of immediate or proximate causation, arguing instead that patterns perceived in nature are merely the habitual actions of God as he constantly re-creates and refashions the universe. See also ARABIC PHILOSOPH. P.E.W.