Shang Yang also called Lord Shang (d. 338 B.C.), Chinese statesman. A prime minister of Ch’in and prominent Legalist, he emphasized the importance of fa (law, or more broadly, impartial standards for punishment and reward) to the sociopolitical order. Shang Yang maintained that agriculture and war were the keys to a strong state. However, humans are self-interested rational actors. Their interest to avoid hard work and the risk of death in battle is at odds with the ruler’s desire for a strong state. Accordingly, the ruler must rely on harsh punishments and positive rewards to ensure the cooperation of the people. See also CHINESE LEGALIS.
R.P.P. & R.T.A. Shankara, also transliterated Sankara and Samkara (A.D. 788–820), Indian philosopher who founded Advaita Vedanta Hinduism. His major works are the Brahma-Sutra-Bhafya (a commentary on Badarayana’s Brahma Sutras) and his Gita-Bhayfa (a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita). He provides a vigorous defense of mind–body dualism, of the existence of a plurality of minds and mind-independent physical objects, and of monotheism. Then, on the basis of appeal to sruti (scripture) – i.e., the Vedas and Upanishads – and an esoteric enlightenment experience (moksha), he relegates dualism, realism, and theism to illusion (the level of appearance) in favor of a monism that holds that only nirguna or qualityless Brahman exists (the level of reality). Some interpreters read this distinction between levels metaphysically rather than epistemologically, but this is inconsistent with Shankara’s monism. See also ADVAITA, VE- DANT. K.E.Y.