Tung Chung-shu (c.179–c.104 B.C.), Chinese philosopher, a Han scholar famous for his answers to questions by Emperor Wu, which were instrumental in making Confucianism the state doctrine in 136 B.C. He wrote Ch’un-ch’iu fan-lu (‘Luxuriant Gems of the Spring and Autumn Annals’), in which he read moral messages from historical events recorded in the classic in such a way that they could be applied to future history. Tung’s teachings were actually quite different from those of Confucius and Mencius. He believed that Heaven and the Way do not change, and he taught the so-called Three Bonds, according to which the ruler, the father, and the husband are to be the standards of the ruled, the son, and the wife. These added a conservative ring to Confucianism, so that the rulers were happy to use it in combination with Legalist practice to create a state Confucianism. He also incorporated many ideas from the yin–yang school in his philosophy. He believed that history goes in cycles, the five powers (wood, fire, earth, metal, water) succeed each other, and there is a strict correlation between natural affairs and human affairs. He saw natural disasters as warning signs for the rulers to cultivate virtues and not to abuse their powers. See also CONFU- CIANISM , CONFUCIUS , MENCIU. S.-h.L.