dharma in Hinduism and especially in the early literature of the Vedas, a cosmic rule giving things their nature or essence, or in the human context, a set of duties and rules to be performed or followed to maintain social order, promote general well-being, and be righteous. Pursuit of dharma was considered one of the four fundamental pursuits of life, the three others being those of wealth (artha), pleasure (kama), and spiritual liberation (moksha). In the Bhagavad Gita, dharma was made famous as svadharma, meaning one’s assigned duties based on one’s nature and abilities rather than on birth. The Hindu lawgiver Manu (who probably lived between the third century B.C. and the first century A.D.) codified the dharmic duties based on a fourfold order of society and provided concrete guidance to people in discharging their social obligations based on their roles and stations in life. Even though Manu, like the Gita, held that one’s duties and obligations should fit one’s nature rather than be determined by birth, the dharma-oriented Hindu society was eventually characterized by a rigid caste structure and a limited role for women. See also BHAGAVAD GITA. D.K.C.