t’ien Chinese term meaning ‘heaven’, ‘sky’. T’ien has a range of uses running from the most to the least anthropomorphic. At one extreme, t’ien is identified with shang ti. T’ien can be spoken of as having desires and engaging in purposive actions, such as bestowing the Mandate of Heaven (t’ien ming). T’ien ming has a political and an ethical use. It can be the mandate to rule given to a virtuous individual. It can also be the moral requirements that apply to each individual, especially as these are embodied in one’s nature. At the other extreme, thinkers such as Hsün-Tzu identify t’ien with the natural order. Even in texts where t’ien is sometimes used anthropomorphically, it can also be used as synonymous with ming (in the sense of fate), or simply refer to the sky. After the introduction of Buddhism into China, the phrase ‘Hall of Heaven’ (t’ien t’ang) is used to refer to the paradise awaiting some souls after death. See also CHUNG -YUNG , HSING , MING , SHANG T. B.W.V.N.