Neo-Taoism in Chinese, hsüan-hsüeh (‘Profound Learning’, ‘Mysterious Learning’, or ‘Dark Learning’), a broad, multifaceted revival of Taoist learning that dominated Chinese philosophy from the third to the sixth century A.D. Literally ‘dark red’, hsüan is used in the Lao Tzu (Tao Te Ching) to describe the sublime mystery of the tao. Historically, hsüan-hsüeh formed a major topic of ‘Pure Conversation’ (ch’ing-t’an), where scholars in a time of political upheaval sought to arrest the perceived decline of the tao. When the Wei dynasty replaced the Han in A.D. 220, a first wave of Neo-Taoist philosophers represented by Ho Yen (c.190–249) and Wang Pi (226–49) radically reinterpreted the classical heritage to bring to light its profound meaning. The Confucian orthodoxy – as distinguished from the original teachings of Confucius – was deemed ineffectual and an obstacle to renewal. One of the most important debates in Profound Learning – the debate on ‘words and meaning’ – criticizes Han scholarship for its literal imagination and confronts the question of interpretation. Words are necessary but not sufficient for understanding. The ancient sages had a unified view of the Tao, articulated most clearly in the I-Ching, Lao Tzu, and Chuang Tzu, but distorted by Han scholars. Most Neo-Taoists concentrated on these ‘Three Profound Treatises’ (san-hsüan). Wang Pi is best known for his commentaries on the I-Ching and the Lao Tzu; and Kuo Hsiang (d.312), another leading Neo-Taoist, is arguably the most important Chuang Tzu commentator in Chinese history.
The tao is the source of all being, but against identifying the tao with a creator ‘heaven’ or an original ‘vital energy’ (ch’i), Wang Pi argues that being originates from ‘non-being’ (wu). The concept of non-being, taken from the Lao Tzu, brings out the transcendence of the tao. Nameless and without form, the tao as such can be described only negatively as wu, literally ‘not having’ any characteristics. In contrast, for Kuo Hsiang, non-being does not explain the origin of being because, as entirely conceptual, it cannot create anything. If non-being cannot bring forth being, and if the idea of a creator remains problematic, the only alternative is to regard the created order as coming into existence spontaneously. This implies that being is eternal. Particular beings can be traced to contingent causes, but ultimately the origin of being can be understood only in terms of a process of ‘selftransformation.’ Chinese sources often contrast Wang Pi’s ‘valuing non-being’ (kuei-wu) with Kuo Hsiang’s ‘exaltation of being’ (ch’ung-yu).
In ethics and politics, Wang stresses that the tao is manifest in nature as constant principles (li). This is what the classics mean by tzu-jan, naturalness or literally what is of itself so. The hierarchical structure of sociopolitical relations also has a basis in the order of nature. While Wang emphasizes unity, Kuo Hsiang champions diversity. The principle of nature dictates that everyone has a particular ‘share’ of vital energy, the creative power of the tao that determines one’s physical, intellectual, and moral capacity. Individual differences ought to be accepted, but do not warrant value discrimination. Each individual is in principle complete in his/her own way, and constitutes an indispensable part in a larger whole. Taoist ethics thus consists in being true to oneself, and nourishing one’s nature. In government, naturalness finds expression in non-action (wu-wei), which may be contrasted with Legalist policies emphasizing punishment and control. For Wang Pi, wu-wei aims at preserving the natural order so that the myriad things can flourish. Practically, it involves the elimination of willful intervention and a return to ’emptiness and quiescence’; i.e., freedom from the dictates of desire and a life of guileless simplicity. Not to be confused with total inaction, according to Kuo Hsiang, wu-wei signifies a mode of being that fully uses one’s natural endowment. When one is guided by inherent moral principles, there is no place for artificiality or self-deception in the Taoist way of life. Ethical purity does not entail renunciation. Though the sage finds himself along the corridors of power, he safeguards his nature and remains empty of desire. In government, the sage ruler naturally reduces arbitrary restrictions, adjusts policies to suit changing needs, identifies the right people for office, and generally creates an environment in which all under heaven can dwell in peace and realize their potential. Ho Yen died a victim of political intrigue, at the close of the Cheng-shih reign period (240–49) of the Wei dynasty. Wang Pi died later in the same year. Historians refer to ‘Cheng-shih hsüanhsüeh’ to mark the first phase of Neo-Taoism. Later, political power was controlled by the Ssuma family, who eventually founded the Chin dynasty in A.D. 265. During the Wei–Chin transition, a group of intellectuals, the ‘Seven Worthies of the Bamboo Grove,’ came to represent the voice of Profound Learning. Among them, Hsi K’ang (223–62), Juan Chi (210–63), and Hsiang Hsiu (c.227–80) are of particular interest to philosophy. In different ways, they look to naturalness as a basis for renewal. Debates in Profound Learning often revolve around the relationship between ‘orthodox teachings’ (ming-chiao) and tzu-jan. For Wang Pi and Kuo Hsiang, government and society should ideally conform to nature. Both Hsi K’ang and Juan Chi found ming-chiao impinging on naturalness. This also gave impetus to the development of a counterculture. Central to this is the place of emotion in the ethical life. Ho Yen is credited with the view that sages are without emotions (ch’ing), whose exceptional ch’i-endowment translates into a purity of being that excludes emotional disturbance. Hsi K’ang also values dispassion, and Hsiang Hsiu urges putting passion under the rule of ritual; but many appreciated strong emotion as a sign of authenticity, which often contravened orthodox teachings. As Pure Conversation gained currency, it became fashionable to give free rein to one’s impulses; and many hoped to establish a reputation by opposing orthodoxy. The debate on naturalness raises the further question of talent or capacity (ts’ai) and its relationship to human nature (hsing). In Profound Learning, four distinct positions have been proposed: that talent and nature are identical (t’ung); different (i); harmonious (ho); and separate (li). This is important because the right talent must be identified to serve political ends. In the early fourth century, the Chin dynasty had to flee its capital and rebuild in south China. As the literati resettled, they looked back to the time of Ho Yen and Wang Pi as the golden age of Profound Learning. Although Pure Conversation continued with undiminished vigor, it did not introduce many new ideas. As it entered its last phase, another Taoist work, the Lieh-tzu, came to rival the ‘Three Profound Treatises.’ Chang Chan (c.330–400) wrote an important commentary on the work, which not only recapitulated many of the ideas that spanned the spectrum of Neo-Taoist philosophy but also borrowed Buddhist ideas. From the fourth century onward, Buddhist masters frequently engaged in Pure Conversation and challenged hsüan-hsüeh scholars at their own game.
See also BUDDHISM , CHINESE LEGALISM , CHINESE PHILOSOPHY. A.K.L.C.