Chinese philosophy philosophy produced in China from the sixth century B.C. to the present. Traditional Chinese philosophy. Its history may be divided into six periods: (1) Pre-Ch’in, before 221 B.C. Spring and Autumn, 722–481 B.C. Warring States, 403–222 B.C. (2) Han, 206 B.C. – A.D. 220 Western (Former) Han, 206 B.C. – A.D. 8 Hsin, A.D. 9–23 Eastern (Later) Han, A.D. 25–220 (3) Wei-Chin, 220–420 Wei, 220–65 Western Chin, 265–317 Eastern Chin, 317–420 (4) Sui-Tang, 581–907 Sui, 581–618 Tang, 618–907 Five Dynasties, 907–60 (5) Sung-(Yüan)-Ming, 960–1644 Northern Sung, 960–1126 Southern Sung, 1127–1279 Yuan (Mongol), 1271–1368 Ming, 1368–1644 (6) Ch’ing (Manchu), 1644–1912 In the late Chou dynasty (1111–249 B.C.), before Ch’in (221–206 B.C.) unified the country, China entered the so-called Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, and Chou culture was in decline. The so-called hundred schools of thought were contending with one another; among them six were philosophically significant: (a) Ju-chia (Confucianism), represented by Confucius (551–479 B.C.), Mencius (371– 289 B.C.?), and Hsün Tzu (fl. 298–238 . .) (b) Tao-chia (Taoism), represented by Lao Tzu (sixth or fourth century B.C.) and Chuang Tzu (between 399 and 295 B.C.) (c) Mo-chia (Mohism), represented by Mo Tzu (fl. 479–438 B.C.) (d) Ming-chia (Logicians), represented by Hui Shih (380–305 B.C.), Kung-sun Lung (b.380 B.C.?) (e) Yin-yang-chia (Yin–yang school), represented by Tsou Yen (305–240 B.C.?) ( f) Fa-chia (Legalism), represented by Han Fei (d. 233 B.C.) Thus, China enjoyed her first golden period of philosophy in the Pre-Ch’in period. As most Chinese philosophies were giving responses to existential problems then, it is no wonder Chinese philosophy had a predominantly practical character. It has never developed the purely theoretical attitude characteristic of Greek philosophy. During the Han dynasty, in 136 B.C., Confucianism was established as the state ideology. But it was blended with ideas of Taoism, Legalism, and the Yin–yang school. An organic view of the universe was developed; creative thinking was replaced by study of the so-called Five Classics: Book of Poetry, Book of History, Book of Changes, Book of Rites, and Spring and Autumn Annals. As the First Emperor of Ch’in burned the Classics except for the I-Ching, in the early Han scholars were asked to write down the texts they had memorized in modern script. Later some texts in ancient script were discovered, but were rejected as spurious by modern-script supporters. Hence there were constant disputes between the modern-script school and the ancient-script school.
Wei-Chin scholars were fed up with studies of the Classics in trivial detail. They also showed a tendency to step over the bounds of rites. Their interest turned to something more metaphysical; the Lao Tzu, the Chuang Tzu, and the I-Ching were their favorite readings. Especially influential were Hsiang Hsiu’s (fl. A.D. 250) and Kuo Hsiang’s (d. A.D. 312) Commentaries on the Chuang Tzu, and Wang Pi’s (226–49) Commentaries on the Lao Tzu and I-Ching. Although Wang’s perspective was predominantly Taoist, he was the first to brush aside the hsiang-shu (forms and numbers) approach to the study of the I-Ching and concentrate on i-li (meanings and principles) alone. Sung philosophers continued the i-li approach, but they reinterpreted the Classics from a Confucian perspective.
Although Buddhism was imported into China in the late Han period, it took several hundred years for the Chinese to absorb Buddhist insights and ways of thinking. First the Chinese had to rely on ko-i (matching the concepts) by using Taoist ideas to transmit Buddhist messages. After the Chinese learned a great deal from Buddhism by translating Buddhist texts into Chinese, they attempted to develop the Chinese versions of Buddhism in the Sui–Tang period. On the whole they favored Mahayana over Hinayana (Theravada) Buddhism, and they developed a much more life-affirming attitude through Hua-yen and T’ien-tai Buddhism, which they believed to represent Buddha’s mature thought. Ch’an went even further, seeking sudden enlightenment instead of scripture studies. Ch’an, exported to Japan, has become Zen, a better-known term in the West.
In response to the Buddhist challenge, the Neo-Confucian thinkers gave a totally new interpretation of Confucian philosophy by going back to insights implicit in Confucius’s so-called Four Books: the Analects, the Mencius, The Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean (the latter two were chapters taken from the Book of Rites). They were also fascinated by the I-Ching. They borrowed ideas from Buddhism and Taoism to develop a new Confucian cosmology and moral metaphysics. Sung–Ming Neo-Confucianism brought Chinese philosophy to a new height; some consider the period the Chinese Renaissance. The movement started with Chou Tun-i (1017–73), but the real founders of Neo-Confucianism were the Ch’eng brothers: Ch’eng Hao (1032–85) and Ch’eng Yi (1033–1107). Then came Chu Hsi (1130–1200), a great synthesizer often compared with Thomas Aquinas or Kant in the West, who further developed Ch’eng Yi’s ideas into a systematic philosophy and originated the so-called Ch’eng–Chu school. But he was opposed by his younger contemporary Lu Hsiang-shan (1139–93). During the Ming dynasty, Wang Yang-ming (1472–1529) reacted against Chu Hsi by reviving the insight of Lu Hsiang-shan, hence the so-called Lu–Wang school. During the Ch’ing dynasty, under the rule of the Manchus, scholars turned to historical scholarship and showed little interest in philosophical speculation. In the late Ch’ing, K’ang Yu-wei (1858–1927) revived the modern-script school, pushed for radical reform, but failed miserably in his attempt. Contemporary Chinese philosophy. Three important trends can be discerned, intertwined with one another: the importation of Western philosophy, the dominance of Marxism on Mainland China, and the development of contemporary New Confucian philosophy. During the early twentieth century China awoke to the fact that traditional Chinese culture could not provide all the means for China to enter into the modern era in competition with the Western powers. Hence the first urgent task was to learn from the West. Almost all philosophical movements had their exponents, but they were soon totally eclipsed by Marxism, which was established as the official ideology in China after the Communist takeover in 1949. Mao Tse-tung (1893–1976) succeeded in the line of Marx, Engels, Lenin, and Stalin. The Communist regime was intolerant of all opposing views. The Cultural Revolution was launched in 1967, and for a whole decade China closed her doors to the outside world. Almost all the intellectuals inside or outside of the Communist party were purged or suppressed. After the Cultural Revolution was over, universities were reopened in 1978. From 1979 to 1989, intellectuals enjoyed unprecedented freedom. One editorial in People’s Daily News said that Marx’s ideas were the product of the nineteenth century and did not provide all the answers for problems at the present time, and hence it was desirable to develop Marxism further. Such a message was interpreted by scholars in different ways. Although the thoughts set forth by scholars lacked depth, the lively atmosphere could be compared to the May Fourth New Culture Movement in 1919. Unfortunately, however, violent suppression of demonstrators in Peking’s Tiananmen Square in 1989 put a stop to all this. Control of ideology became much stricter for the time being, although the doors to the outside world were not completely closed.
As for the Nationalist government, which had fled to Taiwan in 1949, the control of ideology under its jurisdiction was never total on the island; liberalism has been strong among the intellectuals. Analytic philosophy, existentialism, and hermeneutics all have their followers; today even radicalism has its attraction for certain young scholars.
Even though mainstream Chinese thought in the twentieth century has condemned the Chinese tradition altogether, that tradition has never completely died out. In fact the most creative talents were found in the contemporary New Confucian movement, which sought to bring about a synthesis between East and West. Among those who stayed on the mainland, Fung Yu-lan (1895–1990) and Ho Lin (1902–92) changed their earlier views after the Communist takeover, but Liang Sou-ming (1893–1988) and Hsiung Shih-li (1885–1968) kept some of their beliefs. Ch’ien Mu (1895–1990) and Tang Chün-i (1909–78) moved to Hong Kong and Thomé H. Fang (1899–1976), Hsü Fu-kuan (1903–82), and Mou Tsung-san (1909–95) moved to Taiwan, where they exerted profound influence on younger scholars. Today contemporary New Confucianism is still a vital intellectual movement in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and overseas; it is even studied in Mainland China. The New Confucians urge a revival of the traditional spirit of jen (humanity) and sheng (creativity); at the same time they turn to the West, arguing for the incorporation of modern science and democracy into Chinese culture.
The New Confucian philosophical movement in the narrower sense derived inspiration from Hsiung Shih-li. Among his disciples the most original thinker is Mou Tsung-san, who has developed his own system of philosophy. He maintains that the three major Chinese traditions – Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist – agree in asserting that humans have the endowment for intellectual intuition, meaning personal participation in tao (the Way). But the so-called third generation has a much broader scope; it includes scholars with varied backgrounds such as Yu Ying-shih (b. 1930), Liu Shu-hsien (b. 1934), and Tu Wei-ming (b.1940), whose ideas have impact on intellectuals at large and whose selected writings have recently been allowed to be published on the mainland. The future of Chinese philosophy will still depend on the interactions of imported Western thought, Chinese Marxism, and New Confucianism. See also BUDDHISM , CHU HSI, CONFUCIAN – ISM , HSIUNG SHIH – LI , NEO – CONFUCIANISM , TAOISM , WANG YANG – MIN. S.-h.L.